Pysch1 Midterm1 (Partial Full List)

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500 to 300 BC

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Classical Period

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1600 to 1914

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Enlightenment Style

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1914 to 1960

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Behaviorism

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1960 to 2008

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Cognitive “Revolution”

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Wundt

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Opened the first university-based psychology laboratory

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*Descartes

*Dualism

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Dualism placed heavy emphasis on the body rather then soul.


Idea that a human consisted of a material body and an immaterial soul

*P.R. Factor in the severity of the split between conscious and matter
*Why can't there be scientific investigation of non-material phenomena?
*Nascent cognitive approach: representative transformation See [Fig. 1.2]

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Mental Activity for EMPIRICISM

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*learned
*passive (movie screen analogy) – Born more simple
*Organized bottom-up - “ideal dog” not known, piece sensations to create an “ideal dog”
*conscious

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Mental Activity for NATIVISM

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*largely innate (computer analogy) – born more complicated knowledge
*More active
*Organized top-down - “ideal dog” already exists, connect sensations to this
*Much non-conscious processing

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The Importance of Skepticism

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*People want to believe it is true, even when it clearly is not.
*Skeptics seek to disprove claims. That is the logical foundation of scientific testing.
*A scientific theory becomes more believable as repeated, genuine attempts to disprove it fail.
*Pfungst's skepticism caused him to test rather than simply accept claims about Han's ability

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Observation and Control

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*To test hypotheses, scientists control the conditions in which they make observations, so as to rule out alternative explanations.
*Pfungst measured Han's performance in conditions arranged specifically to test his hypothesis-with and with out blinders, for example

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Observer-Expectancy Effects

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*Observers/researchers may unintentionally communicate to subjects their expectations and behave accordingly.

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Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

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A variable that may have an effect on another variable

Variable that is hypothesized to be affected

IV: Temperature, weather conditions
DV: Number of ice cream sales increase

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Descriptive Studies

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Designed only to characterize and record what is observed not to test hypotheses about relationships among variables
*Laboratories offer more control over variables, but my affect subjects.
*Field studies offer less control on variables, but more natural for subjects.

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Artificial Selection

Natural Selection

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Artificial Selection – human-controlled selective breeding

Natural Selection – natural environment controls breeding

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Functionalism

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The attempt to explain behavior in terms of what is accomplishes for the behaving individual.

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Vestigial Characteristics

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A trait used by ancestors by not by modern organisms.

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Species-Typical behaviors

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Characteristics of how an organism behaves
Ex: meowing, climbing trees, are for a cat. Dam building for beavers.

Front 18

Homology

Analogy

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Homology – Similarity between species due to ancestry
Analogy – Convergent evolution to a adaptation. Ex: flight for birds, bats, butterflies.

Front 19

Mating Patterns

polygamy

polyandry

monogamy

Polygynandry

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Mating Patterns

(poly- means “many” ; mono- means “one” ; -gyn means female ; -andr means male)

polygamy – one male, multi female

polyandry – one female, many male

monogamy – one male, one female

Polygynandry – Many male, many female

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Difference in mating patterns, why?

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*Trivers theorized that sex differences in parental investment (time, energy, risk involved in bearing and raising young) explain mating patterns and sex differences in size, aggressiveness, competition for mates, and selectivity in choosing mates.

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*Cooperation

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help another while helping yourself

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Altruism

And two reasons why.

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*Altruism – When an individual helps another at net cost to oneself
*Kin Selection Theory – To help close relatives survive (form of altruism)
*Reciprocity Theory – Receiving help after giving help. (form of long term coop/altri)

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Naturalistic Fallacy

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Equation of what is natural with what is right. It was indulged by in social Darwinists. Ex: If Natural Selection promotes self-interested struggle among individuals, then selfishness is right. Natural Selection does not deal with morals. Only humans do.

Front 24

Deterministic fallacy

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The belief that genes control behavior in ways that cannot be altered by environmental experiences or conscious decisions.

Front 25

Four Domains of Psychological Explanation

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*Physics
*Physiology (Neural connections, hormones, etc)(Micro level)
*Consciousness consciousness
*Behavior (Macro level)

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Regression to the mean

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To regress back to a specific mean

Front 27

Reflex

Stimulus

Response

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Reflex – Response
Stimulus – Environmental Event
Response – Behavior to stimulus.

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Habituation

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developed by Ivan Pavolv. Decline in the magnitude of a reflexive response

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extinction

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A conditioned stimulus to give less and less of a response

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spontaneous recovery

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As time passes an extinct reflex may reappear

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generalization

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To connect a conditioned response to more then just the original stimulus

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discrimination training

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to reinforce the original stimulus and abolish generalization
Ex: Black square, food is given. Gray square, no food given.

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Operant Responses

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Also known as “instrumental responses”, actions on environment to bring change.
Ex: Pull lever to receive first

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Law of Effect

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Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again.

Ex: Puzzle box many different responses at first, but less and less. Cat scratching, pushing bars, diggin at floor. Afterwards, just pull lever

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Thorndike

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Puzzle box, law of effect
Ex: Puzzle box. Many different responses as first such as scratching, pushing bars, trying to dig whole, but afterwards, more lever pulling by cat.

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Reinforcement Vs Punishment

Positive and negative

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Reinforcement Vs Punishment (Positive = something appears, negative = something disappears)
*Reinforcement increases response rate; punishment decreases response rate
*Reinforcement can be either:
Positive (e.g., praise is given)
Negative (e.g., pain goes away)
*Punishment can be either:
Positive (e.g., strong disapproval is given)
Negative (e.g., computer privileges are taken away)

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“Ultimate” Explanation

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Based on findings Darwinian functional adaptations. Often less certain but more satisfying.

Ex: Why the sensor? “Ultimate” gives a because. Males want to reproduce. Attract female, and show they are superior male.

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“Proximate” Explanation

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Based on establishing physical processes often more certain but less satisfying descriptive.

Ex: Song birds, have sensor and hormones are released. It sings & gets “horny”
-Tells the actions, chemicals, but does not give why organism is like this.

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Behaviorism

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*Impact on Psychology
1. New+Valuable Emphasis
*Our community with animals
*Learning+Reinforcement
2. Total Rejection of consciousness+traditional psychology.
3. Either/or “Authoritarian” methodology. All psychology to be only S-R experiments.
4. Bottom-Up complex behavior just a string of S-R associations.

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The Black Box

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1. Predict and control. Not understanding
2. No representation/interpretation

*Organism's thinking/consciousness explained not by behaviorism.
Behaviorist believes conscious outside of Psychology

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Pavlov

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*Classical conditioning
*Extinction (habituation) – learning
*Habituation – Ex: constant noise wears out, music is not “zappy” anymore
*Stimulus generalization – Ex: Dog salivates at a 440htz note, and also at 430 htz note but less
*Stimulus discrimination – Ex: Teach it to only salivate at 440htz. Reinforce 440 note and not other.
*Spontaneous Recovery – Something remembered that comes back.
Ex: Play note 440htz in few days, dog responses a little bit.

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Tolman

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*S→O→R Behaviorism
*Cognitive map Experiment
*Rats explored and learning the layout of a simple maze. When blocks were placed, rats chose next quickest route frequently and did not make errors or run in circles.
*Bottom-Up + Top-Down
*More Cognitive Evidence Against Simple S-R Behaviorism
*Handling New Situation

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Little Albert

Back 43

At first Little Albert plays with rats and no fear. Afterwards, when Albert plays with rats, a large sound is played that scares Albert. After two times of the lound sound. Albert becomes scared of the rats. This shows generalization also, because he becomes fearful of rabbits as well. Showed instinct tendencies to be scared.

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Species Typical behavior

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Humans are scared of living animals more easily because of ancestral fear.

A behavior an animal usually does. Cat meows.

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Thorndike's Thumbtwitch

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Two groups one was told that there is movement to remove static and other group was not. After a while static lowered for both groups overall.
-Showed lots of unconscious behavior.

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Pigeon Experiment

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-Lots of pictures some with trees, some with no trees.
-Wildly different versions of trees given.
-Found that piegons understood what a tree was. (The concept)

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Neurons

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-human brain contains roughly 100 billion nerve cells
-basic unit for nervous system

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Central Nervous System

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Made up by the brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral Nervous System

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Extensions from the central nervous system, called 'nerves'

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nerve

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a BUNDLE of many neurons

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Sensory Neuron

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Carries information from sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, etc)

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motor neurons

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Operate with muscles + glands

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interneurons

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message from one neuron to the other

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Cell Body

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Contains nucleus and other basic machinery

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Dendrites

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Branch extensively and function to receive input to the neuron

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axon

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-carry message to other neurons or muscle cells
-axon terminal – designed to release chemical transmitter molecules
-myelin sheath – special non-neural cells that are wrapped tightly around the axon