Pysch Final Exam

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Triune Brain

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Conceptual model of brain structure distinguishing among three main parts of the human brain that evolved at different points and perform distinct functions

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Brain Stem

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The lowest region of the brain; its structures regulate bodily activities critical to survival

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Medulla

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A structure in the brain stem that contributes to homeostasis by regulating rates of physiological activity and that serves as the communications pathway from the brain to the rest of the body

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Pons

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A structure of the brain stem that carries out biological functions, including the control of breathing rate and generation of REM sleep.

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Midbrain

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A structure of the brain stem that contributes to survival in several ways, such as by generating defensive reactions to threatening events

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Reticular Formation

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A network of cells in the brain stem that influences bodily arousal

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Cerebellum

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A brain structure located behind the brain stem that regulates motor movement and also contributes to emotion and thinking

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Limbic System

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A set of brain structures just above the brain stem, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, that give mammals the capacity to experience emotional reactions

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Hypothalamus

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A limbic system structure key to the regulation of bodily states and behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual response

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Hippocampus

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A limbic system structure needed for forming permanent memories and central to spatial memory

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Amygdala

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A limbic system structure that contributes to the processing of threatening stimuli

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Cerebral Cortex

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A layer of cells on the brain's outer surface that is key to the human capacity for complex conceptual though

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Occipital Lobe

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The region of the cerebral cortex heavily involved in the processing of visual information and mental imagery; commonly called the visual cortex

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Parietal Lobes

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The region of the cerebral cortex that processes somatosensory information (i.e., relating the body to the environment

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Sensory Cortex

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A region of the parietal cortex that receives sensory information from all parts of the body

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Temporal Lobe

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The region of the cerebral cortex crucial to psychological functions, including hearing and memory

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Auditory Cortex

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A region of the temporal loves that contributes to the processing of sounds and also is key to remembering facts and experiences

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Frontal Lobes

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A part of the cerebral cortex that is particularly large in humans and enables distinctive human mental abilities such as self-reflection (i.e., thinking about oneself)

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Motor Cortex

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A region of the cerebral cortex that sends out signals controlling the body's muscular movements

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Association Areas

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Areas of the cerebral cortex that receive sensory information from other regions of the brain and connect it to memories and stored knowledge, enabling psychologically meaningful experiences

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Prefrontal Cortex

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The area of the brain immediately behind the forehead; a complex area that contributes to the ability to concentrate on facts, focus attention, manipulate information, and align behavior with social rules

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Cerebral Hemispheres

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The two sides of the brain; the left hemisphere specializes in analytical tasks including math and language, while the right hemisphere is specialized for spatial thinking, the ability to create and think about images

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Corpus Callosum

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A brain structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, enabling them to work in synchrony

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Split Brain

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A surgical procedure in which the corpus callosum is cut. The resulting disruption of information transmission between cerebral hemisphere alters conscious experience

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Thalamus

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A structure near the center of the brain that serves as a "rely station" for rapid connections among brain regions

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Connectome

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The complete network of neural connections in the brain overall nervous system of an organism

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Neurons

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Brain cells, also called nerve cells, distinguished by their unique shape and ability to communicate with one another

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Dendrites

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Projections that branch out from the main body of a neuron, receiving incoming signals from other neurons

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Axon

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The thin and long projection from a neuron that sends outgoing signals to other neurons

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Action Potentials

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Nerve impulses (or spikes); electrochemical events in which an electrical current travels down the length of an axon

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Myelin Sheath

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A fatty substance that surrounds axons and acts as an electrical insulator

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Synapse

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The small gap that separates any two neutrons; chemical signals between neurons must bridge this microscopic gap

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Neurotransmitters

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Chemical substances that travel across synapses between neurons; the primary way that neurons communicate

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Synaptic Vesicles

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Small sacs that store and transport neurotransmitters within neurons and release neurotransmitters into synapses

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Receptors

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Sites on the dendrites of receiving neurons to which neurotransmitters can attach; chemically, molecules to which specific types of neurotransmitters can bind

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Glial Cells

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Cells that hold neurons in place and also support their biological functioning, supplying nutrients to neurons and disposing of the brain's biological waste matter

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Nervous System

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The complete collection of neurons that transmits signals among the parts of the body

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Central Nervous System

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The part of the nervous system found in the center of the body; its two main parts are the brain and the spinal cord

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Spinal Cord

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A bundle of neurons and glial cells that extends from the brain stem down to the bottom of the spine; it participates in two-way communications between the brain and the body

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Sensory Neurons

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Nerve cells that respond to eternal stimuli and send messages about the environment to the spinal cord

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Motor neurons

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Nerve cells that send out signals from the spinal cord to the body's muscles, enabling the brain to control bodily movement

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Reflexes

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Automatic, involuntary responses to external stimulation

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Peripheral Nervous System

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That part of the nervous system found in the periphery of the body, outside of the central nervous system; it consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

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Cranial Nerves

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Those parts of the peripheral nervous system found in the head; nerves that extend from the bottom of the brain to structures in the head such as eyes, nose, and tongue

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Spinal Nerves

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Those parts of the peripheral nervous system that extend from the spinal cord to the body's neck, torso, and limbs

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Somatic Nervous System

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Functionally, the part of the peripheral nervous system that provides the brain-to-peripheral communications that allow(s) you to control your bodily movement

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Autonomic Nervous System

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Functionally, the part of the peripheral nervous system that provides the communications controlling bodily functions that generally are not under your control, such as breathing

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Sympathetic Nervous System

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A component of the autonomic nervous system that prepares organisms or action by activating biological systems required for "fight or flight" responses

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

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A component of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal functioning of the body when one is not under threat or stress by activating digestion and waste elimination and restoring baseline heart rate and blood pressure

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Endocrine System

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A collection of glands that produce and secrete hormones, which carry messages from the brain to organs via the bloodstream

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Hormones

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Chemical sthat the endocrine system uses for communication; they travel through the bloodstream and carry messages to the body's organs

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Pineal Gland

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An endocrine gland that produces a hormone called melatonin that influences patterns of sleeping and wakefulness

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Pituitary Gland

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The "master gland" of the endocrine system; it releases hormones that influence biological activity in several other glands, including those that regulate stress response. reproduction, and metabolic rate

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Thyroid Gland

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And endocrine gland that releases hormones regulating the body's metabolic rate

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Thymus

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An endocrine gland that produces hormones influencing the development and functioning of the immune system

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Adrenal Glands

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Endocrine glands that produce hormones that respond to stress, as well as sex hormones

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Pancreas

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The organ that releases hormones including insulin, which regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream

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Gonads

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The organs that produce reproductive cells -- ovaries in the women produce ova and testes in men produce sperm

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Ovaries

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The reproductive cells in women that produce ova (eggs)

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Testes

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The reproduction cells in men that produce sperm

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Plasticity

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The brain's capacity to change physically as a result of experience

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Perceptual Systems

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Interconnected parts of the body that deliver sensory and perceptual information; humans have six perceptual systems

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Visual System

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The perceptual system detecting environmental information that reaches the body in the form of light

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Auditory System

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The perceptual system detecting environmental information that consists of sound waves

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Gustatory System

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The perceptual system that is sensitive to chemical substances and provides the sense of taste

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Olfactory System

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The perceptual system that detects airborne chemical substances and provides the sense of smell

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Haptic System

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The perceptual system through which people acquire information about objects by touching them

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Kinesthetic System

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The perceptual system that detects information about the location of body parts

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Sensation

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The biological process occurring when cells at the periphery of the body detect physical stimuli

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Perception

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The biological process occurring when systems in the brain process sensory signals and produce awareness of sensory inputs

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Transduction

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A biological process in which physical stimuli activate cells in the nervous system, which then send nerve impulses to the brain, where processing gives rise to perceptual and sensory experience

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Receptor Cells

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Nervous system cells that are sensitive to specific types of physical stimulation from the environment and send signals to the brain when stimulated

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Photoreceptors

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Receptor cells in the eye that are sensitive to stimulation by light

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Depth perception

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The perception of distance

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Cues to Depth

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Sources of information that enable us to judge the distance between ourselves and the objects we perceive

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Monocular Cues

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Depth cues that are available even when we use only one eye

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Binocular Cues

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Depth cues that require two eyes

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Converging Vertical Lines

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A monocular depth cue consisting of vertically oriented lines that get closer to one another, creating the perception of depth

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Texture

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A monocular depth cue based on markings on the surface of objects in a visual scene

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Occlusion

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A monocular depth cue in which one object in the field of vision partly blocks another from view

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Shading

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A monocular depth cue based on the presence within a visual image of a relatively dark area that appears to have been created by blocking a source of light

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Clarity

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The degree of distinctness, as opposed to fuzziness, of a visual image; a monocular depth cue

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Ames Room

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An apparatus for studying the perception of size, the room is not cubic, contrary to the visual system's assumption, and this creates perceptual illusion involving size

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Stereopsis

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The perception of three-dimensional space produced by the fact that images reaching your two eyes vary slightly because your eyes are a few inches apart; a binocular depth cue

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Convergence

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A binocular depth cue based on the effort eye muscles must exert to look at objects very close to the face

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Phi Phenomenon

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An illusory perception of visual motion that occurs when stationary objects flash in an alternating sequence and are perceived as a single object moving back and forth

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Optical Flow

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The continuous change in visual images that occurs when organisms move through the environment

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Figure-ground Perception

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The visual system's tendency to divide a scene into objects, or "figures", that are the focus of attention and the background context

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Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

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The minimal variation in a physical stimulus such as light or sound that a person can detect

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Psychophysics

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A branch of psychology that studies relations between physical stimuli and psychological reactions

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Color Constancy

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The tendency for a given object to be perceived as having the same color, despite changes in illumination

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Cornea

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The transparent material at the very front of the eye; its curvature begins the process of focusing light

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Pupil

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The opening in the eye through which light passes

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Iris

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The colorful eye structure that surrounds the pupil and responds to low and high light levels by dilating or constricting the pupil

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Lens

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An adjustable, transparent mechanism in the eye that focuses incoming light

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Retina

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The rear wall of the eye containing nerve cells that respond to light and send signals to the brain

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Cones

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Photoreceptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that provide visual detail and color

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Fovea

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A region near the center of the retina that features a dense concentration of cones

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Color Blindness

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An insensitivity to one or more of the colors red, green, or blue

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Rods

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Photoreceptors that enable vision in low illumination

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Visual Fixations

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Periods when a person's gaze is held in one location, when most visual information is picked up

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Saccades

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Rapid movements of the eyes from one position to another

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Ganglion Cells

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Cells that form the optic nerve and pass visual information from the retina to the brain

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Optic Nerve

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The biological pathway along which information leaves the eyes and moves toward the brain, formed by the long fibers of ganglion cells

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Blind Spot

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The location in the visual field at which nothing is seen because light from that location projects to an area of the retina in which there are no photoreceptors; this is the retinal area where the optic nerve exits the eye

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Optic Chiasm

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The location in the brain where visual signals carried by the optic nerves cross, sending information from the left eye to the right side of the brain, and vice versa

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Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

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Cells that receive visual signals and perform "computations" on them before transmitting the same signals to the visual cortex

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Visual Cortex

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A region in the rear of the brain devoted to processing visual information

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Sounds Waves

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Variations in pressure that reach the ears and are converted by the auditory system into signals

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Loudness

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The subjective experience of the intensity, or strength, of an auditory experience

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Pitch

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The sound experience that we usually describe with the words "low" or "high: (such as a musical note or voice)

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Frequency

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The physical property of sound waves that produces variations in pitch, based on the number of vibrations that occur during any fixed period of time

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Timbre

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The distinctive "signature" of a sound, based on variations in the complexity of sound waves

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Timing

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In the study of auditory perception, a cue to the location of a sound source that is based on the difference in time it takes a sound coming from your side to reach each ear

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Pressure

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In the study of auditory perception, a cue to the location of a sound source that is based on the difference in pressure on left and right ears produced by a sound wave coming from one side

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Ear

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A biological mechanism for hearing with three overall parts; an outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear

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Eardrum

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A thin membrane within the ear that vibrates when struck by sound waves

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Hair Cells

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Auditory receptor cells in the inner ear that are responsible for transduction of sound waves

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Auditory Nerve

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A bundle of nerve cells that carries auditory information from the inner ear to the brain

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Odorant

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Anything that smells; odorants include a variety of substances such as foods, pheromones, and chemical signals of cell damage and disease

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Pheromones

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Chemical signals produced and secreted by one organism and detected by another organism of the same species, triggering a distinctive reaction

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Olfactory Bulbs

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Collections of cells near the front of the brain that receive signals from olfactory receptor cells and begin the process of identifying odors

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Olfactory Cortex

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A neural system that completes the biological processing needed to recognize smells

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Umami

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A taste sensation that is "savory" triggered by high protein levels in food

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Supertasters

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People who have greater sensitivity to tastes than others

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Taste Receptors

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Cells that are stimulated by chemical substances in food, whose activation begins the process of transmitting gustatory information to the brain

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Taste Buds

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Bundles of taste receptors found primarily on the tongue but also on the roof of the mouth and throat

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Gustatory Cortex

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The brain region in the parietal lobe that completes the processing of perceptual signals of taste

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Two-point Procedure

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A method to measure haptic system acuity that assesses the smallest distance at the skin at which people can perceive two separate stimuli rather than one

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Cutaneous Receptors

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Receptor cells under the skin that convert physical stimulation into nervous-system impulses

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Nociceptors

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Specialized pain receptors that are activated by harmful stimuli such as a cut or burn

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Gate Control Theory of Pain

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The theory that the spinal cord contains a biological mechanism that acts like a gate; when closed, pain signals do not reach the brain, resulting in no experience of pain even though there is pain receptor activity

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Attention

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The process of bringing an idea or an external stimulus into conscious awareness

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Selective Attention

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The capacity to choose the flow of information that enters conscious awareness

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Motivation

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The psychological and biological processes that impel people, and other organisms, into action and sustain their efforts over time

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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A classification of human motives according to five basic needs, with lower-level needs requiring fulfillment before moving up to higher levels

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Self-Actualization

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A motivation to realize one's inner potential

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Biological Needs

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Necessities required for an organism's survival (food, drink) and for reproduction

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Hunger

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A feeling of food deprivation that motivates organisms to seek food

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Satiety

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A feeling of having eaten enough food, or being "full"

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Homeostatic Processes

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Processes that maintain a stable biological state in an organism

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Homeostatic Hunger

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Motivation to eat based on the body's need for energy

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Set-point Theories

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Theoretical explanations of hunger and eating which propose that homeostatic processes control food consumption, with people being motivated to eat (or not) when their energy supplies fall below (or above) their set point

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Hedonic Hunger

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Hunger that arises from the anticipated pleasure of eating good food

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Eating Disorders

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Disturbances in eating in which people lose the ability to control their intake of food, resulting in serious health risks

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Anorexia Nervosa

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Eating disorder characterized by such a fear of being fat that people severely restrict their intake to the point of starvation

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Bulimia Nervosa

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Eating disorder characterized by a fluctuating pattern of binging and purging

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Binge Eating Disorder

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A pattern of repeatedly eating excessively; binging without purging

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Fetishism

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Sexual arousal in which stimuli that typically are not sexual in nature stir desires

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Testosterone

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Hormone that plays a role in motivating sexual desire in both men and women

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Need For Achievement

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A desire to succeed on challenging activities requiring skilled, competent performance

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Need to Avoid Failure

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A desire to avoid situations in which lack of competence might lead to failure

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Social Needs

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Desires that motivate people to interact with others and to achieve a meaningful role in society

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Need for Belonging

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A social need that motivates people to spend time with others and to become part of social groups

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Need for Understanding

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A social need to comprehend why events occur and to predict what the future might bring

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Need for Control

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A desire to select one's life activities and to be able to influence events

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Need to Enhance the Self

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A social need to grow as a person, to live a meaningful life, and to realize your true potential

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Oxytocin

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Hormone that activates muscles needed for childbirth and stimulates the release of breast milk; in the brain, it may stimulate feelings of trust

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Personal Agency

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People's capacity to influence their motivation, behavior, and life outcomes by setting goals and developing skills

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Goal

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A mental representation of the aim of an activity; more simply, goals are thoughts about future outcomes that people value

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Proximal Goal

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A goal that specifies what should be done in the near ("proximal") future

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Distal Goal

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A goal that specifies an achievement in the distant future

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Implementation Intentions

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Plans that specify exactly when and where you will work on achieving a goal

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Motivational Orientations

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Broad patterns of thoughts and feelings that can affect people's behaviors across a wide variety of tasks

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Mindset

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A belief about the nature of psychological attributes, such as whether intelligence is fixed or can change

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Intrinsic Motivation

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The desire to engage in activities because they are personally interesting, challenging, and enjoyable

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Promotion Focus

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A mental approach to activities in which the mind is focused on accomplishments that one personally hopes to attain

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Prevention Focus

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A mental approach to activities in which the mind is focused on responsibilities and oligations

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Regulatory Fit

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The match between a motivational orientation and a behavioral strategy

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Flow

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A psychological state in which your attention is directed intently on an activity for a long period of time, and you feel immersed in the activity

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Experience Sampling Method

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A research procedure in which participants carry an electronic device throughout the course of a study signaling the participant to respond at random intervals throughout the day