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133 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Sensation:
is the process through which the senses pick up visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli and transmit them to the brain
Perception:
is the process by which the brain actively organizes and interprets sensory information
Absolute threshold:
is the minimum amount of sensory stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time
Difference threshold:
is the smallest increase or decrease in a physical stimulus required to produce a difference in sensation that is noticeable 50% of the time
Sensory receptors:
are highly specialized cells in the sense organs that detect and respond to one type of sensory stimuli and transduce (convert) the stimuli into neural impulses.
Transduction:
is the process through which sensory receptors convert sensory stimulation into neural impulses.
Sensory adaptation:
is the process in which sensory receptors grow accustomed to constant, unchanging levels of stimuli over time e.g., Smokers grow accustomed to smell of cigarettes.
Cornea:
Tough, transparent protective layer that covers front of eye, which bends light rays inward through the pupil.
Lens:
Transparent disk-shaped structure behind the iris and
pupil, which changes shape as it focuses on objects at
varying distances. This process is called
Accommodation. This becomes more difficult as we age,
therefore the need for reading or progressive glasses!
Retina:
contains sensory receptors for vision.
Rods:
are receptor cells that allow eye to respond to low levels of light.
Cones:
are receptor cells that enable us to see color and fine detail.
Fovea:
is the area at center of retina that provides the clearest and sharpest vision.
Blind spot:
is the point in each retina where there are no rods or cones.
Optic nerve:
arries visual information from each retina to both sides of the brain.
Primary visual cortex:
located in the occipital lobe, is the part of the brain in which visual information is processed.
The sensation and process of Hearing is called Audition. Sound
requires a medium, such as air or water, through which to move. It’s
true... in space, nobody can hear you scream!
The sensation and process of Hearing is called Audition. Sound
requires a medium, such as air or water, through which to move. It’s
true... in space, nobody can hear you scream!
Outer ear:
is the visible part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and auditory canal.
Middle Ear:
contains the ossicles or middle ear bones, which connect the ear drum to the oval window and amplify sound waves
Inner Ear:
ontains the Cochlea, the fluid filled chamber that
contains the basilar membrane and hair cells. The cochlea
contains about 15,000 hair cells, which are the sensory receptors for hearing. From there, the message is sent to the primary auditory cortex via the Auditory Nerve.
Attention:
is the process of sorting through sensations and selecting
some of them for further processing. When attention is focused on
some sensations, others are missed altogether or misperceived.
Inattentional blindness:
occurs when attention is shifted from
one object to another and we fail to notice changes in objects not receiving direct attention, such as when you are driving and texting!
We also tend to overestimate our ability to multitask!
We also tend to overestimate our ability to multitask!
Bottom-up processing:
Information processing in which individual bits of data are combined until a complete perception is formed.
Top-down processing:
Information processing in which previous experience and knowledge are applied to recognize the whole of a perception and it’s parts.
Perceptual set:
is an expectation of what will be perceived that can affect what is perceived, similar to the idea of a schema from the memory chapter.
Gestalt:
refers to the idea that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”.
Perceptual constancy:
refers to the idea that we perceive objects as maintaining stable properties of size, shape and brightness.
Ambiguous figures:
The perceptual system tries to resolve the uncertainty by seeing the figure first on e way and then another
Impossible figures:
These may not seem unusual until you examine them closely and see the impossibility.
Illusions:
are false perceptions or misperceptions of an actual stimulus in the environment such as the Müller-Lyer illusion. Culture can play a role in whether a given individual perceives an illusion.
1% of the population worldwide suffers from Schizophrenia—about 2 million Americans. While schizophrenia exists in all cultures, the subtypes—therefore the expression of the disorder--- does seem to be culturally influenced to some degree.
1% of the population worldwide suffers from Schizophrenia—about 2 million Americans. While schizophrenia exists in all cultures, the subtypes—therefore the expression of the disorder--- does seem to be culturally influenced to some degree.
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder, the term “schizophrenia” = “split mind”— indicating a break with reality, not multiple personalities. There is a disorder involving multiple personalities, but that is called Dissociative Identity Disorder and is an entirely separate diagnosis.
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder, the term “schizophrenia” = “split mind”— indicating a break with reality, not multiple personalities. There is a disorder involving multiple personalities, but that is called Dissociative Identity Disorder and is an entirely separate diagnosis.
Some experts suspect that what we now call Schizophrenia may actually be several disorders, with differing causes & prognoses. One possible example of this is childhood schizophrenia.
Some experts suspect that what we now call Schizophrenia may actually be several disorders, with differing causes & prognoses. One possible example of this is childhood schizophrenia.
Schizophrenia has a specific pattern as to when it begins. Onset is typically in late adolescence/young adulthood (85% by age 25
Schizophrenia has a specific pattern as to when it begins. Onset is typically in late adolescence/young adulthood (85% by age 25
Some gender differences are evident. The disorder occurs more in males than females, but the difference is not huge. More importantly, males typically have earlier onset (diagnosed 4 years earlier on average), and poorer prognosis (outcome) than females. Think of these 2 factors as linked—if your brain has had more time in operating “normally” (therefore later onset), the outcome may be better. Brain imaging does seem to suggest that the disorder actually damages the brain over time—with some describing psychosis as “toxic” to the brain itself.
Some gender differences are evident. The disorder occurs more in males than females, but the difference is not huge. More importantly, males typically have earlier onset (diagnosed 4 years earlier on average), and poorer prognosis (outcome) than females. Think of these 2 factors as linked—if your brain has had more time in operating “normally” (therefore later onset), the outcome may be better. Brain imaging does seem to suggest that the disorder actually damages the brain over time—with some describing psychosis as “toxic” to the brain itself.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia:
Hallucinations, which are defined as unreal sensations, can involve any sense. However, the most common are auditory hallucinations, often described as “hearing voices”. The second most common are visual hallucinations, which can involve seeing things/people who are not there, or seeing things differently—for example, seeing a “trail” of movement when a car passes by.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia:
Delusions, defined as strongly held false beliefs, despite all evidence to the contrary, and not connected to a cultural belief system.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia:
Delusions of persecution, as the name suggests, exist when someone believes that others are out to harm them. Examples might be “The FBI is spying on me” or “my wife is poisoning my food”.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia:
Delusions of grandeur are exemplified by the individual believing that they are a person of great (perhaps historical) importance, or that they have a special role to play. The stereotypical example would be the person who believes they are Napoleon or Jesus Christ, but another example might be “I am married to the newscaster Charlie Gibson, and I secretly investigate his stories for him and send them to him telepathically.”
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia:
There are also other bizarre delusions such as thought withdrawal (“thoughts are being pulled out of my head”) or thought insertion (“someone is putting these thoughts into my head”). It’s not hard to imagine these delusions developing early on in the illness, as the individual tries to make sense of his/her symptoms.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Emotionally, the individual may act childish, agitated, apathetic, or withdrawn.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Affect (emotional display) can be
o Inappropriate, such as laughing at a funeral, or
o Flat, where there is a lack of emotional display when showing emotion would be appropriate.
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Bizarre Behavior may include:
o Appearance—lack of proper hygiene, bizarre dress
o Sexual behavior, such as public masturbation
o Motor activity—may include catatonia, rigidity, posturing, agitation, purposeless activity, motor speed and coordination are off
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia.
o Bizarre speech, examples:
 “loose associations”, going off on bizarre tangents
 Words are jumbled up, sometimes called “word salad”
 Echoing, mimicking, rhyming, mutism
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Problems with motivation, reasoning, problem solving, planning, goal setting, memory (especially short term/ working memory), and attention
Next are the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Perceptional difficulties. For example, a concept called “shape constancy” explains why we understand that a door remains a rectangle, even when it’s opened and no longer appears that way. An individual with schizophrenia may believe that the door actually changed its shape when opened.
Prognosis tends to be worse: For males than females With earlier onset of symptoms

When treatment is delayed. Research has shown than early intervention is correlated with better outcomes in the long run.

When there are substance abuse issues.

It is estimated that 50% of schizophrenics in the community are substance abusers. When there is a family history of the disorder
Prognosis tends to be worse: For males than females.
There is no cure for Schizophrenia. Complete remission of symptoms is possible but very rare. The breakdown regarding prognosis is, generally:
o 25% can live independently or maintain a job
o 25% have “modest symptoms”
o 50% have “significant impairment”
There is no cure for Schizophrenia. Complete remission of symptoms is possible but very rare. The breakdown regarding prognosis is, generally:
o 25% can live independently or maintain a job
o 25% have “modest symptoms”
o 50% have “significant impairment”
When there are environmental stressors. Stress management help is important to help ward off acute psychotic episodes. When the individual does not have insight into his/her condition. For example, the prognosis is better for those who understand that the voices they are hearing are not real.
When there are environmental stressors. Stress management help is important to help ward off acute psychotic episodes. When the individual does not have insight into his/her condition. For example, the prognosis is better for those who understand that the voices they are hearing are not real.
NOTE: It is possible that a person with Schizophrenia may be a danger to others, for example by following through on voices telling him/her to harm someone.
However, they are much more likely to be: A danger to themselves. 10 % of those with Schizophrenia commit suicide, and it’s typical that those who hear voices receive messages that are self-critical, even encouraging them to take their own lives.
Victims of crime. They are a very vulnerable population that is easily subject to robbery, rape, and other types of bodily harm.
Victims of crime. They are a very vulnerable population that is easily subject to robbery, rape, and other types of bodily harm.
While there is no cure, treatment is key:
Antipsychotic Medication: while still difficult medications, have come a long way. In the 1950’s, drugs such as Thorazine with intolerable and often irreversible side effects were the norm. Newer, “atypical” antipsychotics (around since the 1990’s) are more manageable. Typically, these medications help to “turn down the volume” on hallucinations and delusions, allowing for a higher level of functioning. Medication compliance can be a challenge, though; imagine trying to convince a paranoid schizophrenic that their medication is not poisoned.
While there is no cure, treatment is key:
Individual and family therapy can emphasize social skills, stress management, and problem solving. Support for the whole family is important. Peer support groups can be a great addition.
While there is no cure, treatment is key:
The need for supportive housing is great. There are many individuals who don’t require institutionalization, but are also unable to manage independent living. It is estimated that 20% of diagnosed Schizophrenics are homeless.
So what causes Schizophrenia?
We don’t know for sure, and as mentioned earlier, we may find in the future that we are actually talking about several disorders with different causes. But here are some of the possible causes/correlations, which I’ve divided up into “nature” vs. “nurture”. What does seem clear is that a combination of factors is involved in the development of the disease for any given individual.
On the “nature” or biological/genetic side, we have:
Abnormal amounts of dopamine, and also possibly glutamate Lower brain volume and activity, especially in the temporal and frontal lobes

Genetics: an individual with a schizophrenic first degree relative has a 10-15% chance of developing the disorder, versus 1% for the general population.

An identical twin has a 50% chance—but note that it’s not 100%, so we know that more than genetics is at play here.

Brain maturation during adolescence may be a trigger.
As for the “nurture” side, factors include:
Physical brain trauma, at birth or later Prenatal exposure to malnutrition and viruses.

Maternal stress during pregnancy.

Severe stress/trauma and substance abuse, for those with a genetic vulnerability.
Depression:
which affects 19 million adults in the U.S. alone. Depressed individuals constitute 60% of all suicides.
Blindsight:
phenomenon in which a blind person can detect stimuli.
Capgras Delusion:
syndrome in which a person holds a belief that a person (or animal or object) has been replaced by an identical appearing imposter.
personality—our unique patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.
personality—our unique patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.
subjective reality/experience:
what matters is the unique perspective of the individual. This is also referred to as a phenomenological perspective.
what makes humans unique:
as values, freedom, choice and creativity.
focus on mental health:
a belief that psychotherapy is a tool for personal growth which can benefit all individuals, not only those thought to have psychological disorders.
focus on interdependence:
between individuals, between groups, even between humanity and the planet—as is the case with ecopsychologists.
Carl Rogers said that we are all born with a natural tendency towards self-actualization—reaching our full potential.
Carl Rogers said that we are all born with a natural tendency towards self-actualization—reaching our full potential.
In an ideal world, we would receive from others (family and society) unconditional positive regard, defined as a nonjudgmental caring, valuing, and acceptance.
In an ideal world, we would receive from others (family and society) unconditional positive regard, defined as a nonjudgmental caring, valuing, and acceptance.
we would develop unconditional positive self regard, becoming a fully functioning individual.
we would develop unconditional positive self regard, becoming a fully functioning individual.
Unconditional Positive Regard---->Unconditional Positive Self Regard
Unconditional Positive Regard---->Unconditional Positive Self Regard
conditions of worth are imposed upon us by our families and society. Think of these as “You are loveable and acceptable if….you play football like your Dad….you get straight “A”s….you are thin…you become a lawyer…the list can go on and on!
conditions of worth are imposed upon us by our families and society. Think of these as “You are loveable and acceptable if….you play football like your Dad….you get straight “A”s….you are thin…you become a lawyer…the list can go on and on!
conditional positive regard:
Rogers said that we in turn “introject” (surprisingly, a Freudian term) or internalize these conditions, then truly believing ourselves that we are “only loveable/acceptable if…”
conditional positive self regard:
By receiving messages that we are only conditionally acceptable, we come to feel that way about ourselves, which gets in the way of us reaching our full potential.
Conditions of Worth----->Conditional Postive Self Regard
Conditions of Worth----->Conditional Postive Self Regard
In a Fully Functioning Individual:
Self actualizing tendency is vigorous

The person has received unconditional positive regard, and has received few conditions of worth.

They are open and flexible They trust their intuition or “gut instinct”

They are spontaneous and creative.

They recognize that they have choices in life They are genuine, or what Rogers calls “congruent”—the inside and outside match.
In a Maladjusted Individual:
Self actualizing tendency is dormant or not active (but note that it‟s never absent or „dead”!)

The person has received conditional positive regard—many conditions of worth imposed

They are defensive and rigid.

They don‟t trust their intuition.

They are conforming.

They feel that they have no freedom, that others manipulate their life.

There is incongruence—inner and outer selves do not match.
Person Centered Therapy:
first non-directive therapy, individual already has the answers, subjective experience, all can benefit from therapy, genuine, in-the-moment, and is open to self-disclosure.
first non-directive therapy:
meaning that the individual is the expert and drives the encounter, rather than the therapist.
individual already has the answers....
..... they are seeking, and the therapist is providing the environment in which change can occur
subjective experience:
of the individual, and trusts in their ability to make positive choices.
all can benefit:
from therapy, not only those who are “maladjusted."
Person Centered therapy:
Involves a therapist who is genuine, in-the-moment, and is open to self-disclosure.
Rogers had a very optimistic view. For example, his definition of psychotherapy is “The releasing of an already existing capacity in a potentially competent individual”
Rogers had a very optimistic view. For example, his definition of psychotherapy is “The releasing of an already existing capacity in a potentially competent individual”
Genuineness/Congruence:
the therapist is fully present in the moment and sincere. There is not a contradiction between the inner and outer selves.
Accurate Empathetic Understanding:
of the individual;s world/perspective. The therapist works hard to truly “put themselves into the individual‟s shoes”.
Unconditional Positive Regard:
the therapist provides that nonjudgmental caring, valuing and acceptance—“prizing” the individual just as they are.
Self- Actualization:
Reach our full potential/peak experiences.
Esteem Needs:
Achievement, recognition.
Love and Belonging:
Give and receive love; acceptance.
Safety:
Protection and security.
Physiological/Bio Needs:
Food, water, shelter.
data collection:
his interest in human sexuality lead to his efforts to collect data regarding our sexual behavior—not to judge it or explain it, but to simply document it.
“Kinsey Scale”:
exclusive heterosexuality and exclusive homosexuality are the extremes, but most individuals fall somewhere in between. Thus, sexual orientation is seen not as an “either-or”, but rather a matter of degree.
Transgender
when gender identity/expression differs from birth sex. Transgendered persons exit across cultures and have existed throughout history.
Transvestism
cross-dressing, an individual wears the clothing of the other sex. The great majority of transvestites are men, and most are heterosexual. Societal expectations/norms may influence what is considered to be cross-dressing behavior.
Transsexuals
are transgendered persons who live or wish to live as full time members of the opposite (biological) sex. The process of transitioning may involve hormones and surgery.
Transsexuals Facts:
It is estimated that 1 in 10,000 biological males and 1 in 30,000 biological females are transsexual.
Transsexuals Facts:
Transsexuals are considered by the American Psychiatric Association and others to suffer from a condition called GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER. However this is considered controversial.
Gender Identity is a separate issue from sexual orientation.
Gender Identity is a separate issue from sexual orientation.
Intersex
refers to a variety of conditions where a person is born with atypical physical sex characteristics. In the past, some of these individuals were referred to as hermaphrodites, a term that is inaccurate and no longer considered appropriate.
Intersex conditions-->
may be evident at birth, or not until puberty.
Intersex conditions not evident at birth examples:
Ambiguous genitals.

Unusual development of internal reproductive organs.

External genitals and internal reproductive organs do not match.

Abnormal sex chromosomes.

Abnormal levels of sex-related hormones, or inability to respond to them.
American school for the Deaf :
First permanent school for the Deaf established in the USA in West Hartford, CT.
Cochlear implants allow
many deaf individuals to hear (though not completely replicating "normal" hearing), by sending impulses directly to the auditory nerve, bypassing the ear. This procedure continues to be controversial within the Deaf community.
manual communication:
systems use articulation of the hands (hand signs, gestures) to mediate a message between persons. Being expressed manually, they are received visually.
oral communication:
communication by word of mouth.
talkies
were exclusively shorts; the earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects.
Freud vs. Rogers
Psychoanalysis vs. Person-Centered Therapy
Psychoanalysis:
People are born destructive/amoral/illogical.

The interpretations of the analyst are key to insight/mental health.

The analyst has the expertise/answers.

The analyst does not disclose personal information, so that transference may occur.

Treatment typically involves sessions several times a week, and may last years.
Person-Centered Therapy:
People are born with a striving towards self actualization.

The therapist provides the environment/conditions for change to occur.

The person has the answers and directs the process.

The therapist is open about self-disclosure, regarding both feelings and personal info-genuine/congruent.

Even one encounter can result in change; length of treatment is fluid, both parties discuss, give feedback.
What is REM sleep behavior?
physically acting out dreams (not sleep walking).
REM Sleep:
stands for "rapid eye movement" cause that's what your eyes do beneath your eyelids during this category of sleep. If you watch someone (even your dog) while they sleep, you may see their eyes moving--kind of creepy, yet fascinating!
REM constitutes ....
20%-25% of your night's sleep--about 2 hours total.
REM sleep is also referred to as....
"paradoxical sleep"
REM rebound:
The next time the individual sleep, he or she will experience more REM than usual--and more likely to experience nightmares.
Non-REM:
sleep usually begins with NREM dreams are possible at this time.

NREM is key for restorative sleep, and growth hormone is secreted at this time.
NREM has 4 stages, and we go through all 4 before beginning our first period of REM sleep.
The younger we are, the more REM we experience.
Sleepwalking:
occurs during partial arousal from stage 4 NREM, and is most common in children. The concern here is the individual's personal safety.
Night/sleep terror:
also occur in stage 4 NREM, and often start with a piercing scream. person has no recollection of the event, making it scarier to witness than to experience.
nightmare:
"bad dream"...occur during REM sleep.
Sleep talking:
can occur at any point in our sleep, and contrary to popular belief, is not truth serum.
Narcolepsy:
involves excessive sleepiness and uncontrollable episodes of REM sleep. There is no cure for narcolepsy, which can be quite debilitating. Stimulant medication can help though.
Sleep apnea:
involves periods when breathing stops, and the need to awaken over and over (sometimes hundreds of times) throughout the night because of it. This disorder can be lethal and sufferers might need to use a CPAP to correct breathing.
Insomnia:
refers to difficulty with falling asleep, staying asleep, or with the quality of sleep. 58% of adults report experiencing symptoms of insomnia a few nights a week.
Freud (psychoanalysis): proposed that dreams
are a disguised expression of repressed pas wishes and desires--"wish fulfillment." The manifest content is the surface/literal description of the dream, but Freud said that the latent content --or true (disguised meaning of the dream was most important. Freud saw much of our dreams as having sexual and/ or aggressive content.
Adler (individual psychology):
saw a dream as a problem solving activity that is focused on the future. According to Adler, we rehearse possible course of action for problems brought to the surface through the dream. Alder's take on dreams fits in nicely with some of the current research on the role dreams play in memory.
latent content:
or true (disguised meaning of the dream was most important.
manifest content:
is the surface/literal description of the dream.
What is cause of non-dreaming?
stroke in parietal lobe.

disorder where you wake up at night alot (sleep apnea)
how do experimenters find out what a participant is dreaming about?
they ask the patient when they wake up.
What are some theories regarding the meaning/purpose of dreams?
helping us learn

survival

creativity/inspiration

connect events to the past & future.
What are some characteristics of REM dreams?
more negative feeling

amgdala is activated to it's most

most creativity

5 times longer than non-REM

stimulates real world
What are some characteristic of NREM?
light sleep

more positive self regard

information in bursts.