Public Speaking Exam Three

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informative speaking

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Public speaking that is intended to increase an audience's understanding and awareness by imparting knowledge. Informative speeches provide an audience with new information, new insights, or new ways of thinking about a topic.

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operational definition

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Defining something by describing what it does (e.g., “A computer is something that processes information”).

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definition by negation

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Defining something by explaining what it is not.

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definition by example

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Defining something by providing an example of it.

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definition by synonym

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Defining something by comparing it with another term that has an equivalent meaning. For example: A friend is a comrade or a buddy.

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definition by etymology (word origin)

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Defining something by providing an account of a word's history.

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analogy

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An extended metaphor or simile that compares an unfamiliar concept or process with a more familiar one in order to help the listener understand the one that is unfamiliar.

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persuasion

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The process of influencing others' attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior.

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persuasive speech

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A speech whose general purpose is to effect some degree of change in the audience's beliefs, attitudes, values, or behavior.

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forms of rhetorical proof

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Modes of persuasion that concern the nature of the message in a speech, the nature of the audience's feelings, and the qualifications and personality of the speaker.

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logos

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An appeal to the audience's reason and logic.

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syllogism

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A form of rational appeal defined as a three-part argument consisting of a major premise or general case, a minor premise or specific case, and a conclusion. See also deductive reasoning.

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major premise

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A general case; used in syllogisms and enthymemes. See also minor premise.

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minor premise

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A specific case; used in syllogisms and enthymemes. See also major premise.

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deductive reasoning

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Reasoning from a general condition to a specific instance. See also syllogism.

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hasty overgeneralization

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A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker attempts to support a claim by asserting that a particular piece of evidence (an isolated case) is true for all individuals or conditions concerned.

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enthymeme

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A syllogism stated as a probability rather than as an absolute. Because it states either a major or a minor premise, but not both, the premise not stated remains implied.

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pathos

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The appeal to an audience's emotions

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demagogue

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An unethical speaker who relies heavily on irrelevant emotional appeals to short-circuit listeners' rational decision-making process.

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fear appeal

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A persuasive appeal to audience members that deliberately arouses their fear and anxiety.

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propaganda

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Information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired response.

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ethos

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The Greek word for “character.” According to the ancient Greek rhetorician Aristotle, audiences listen to and trust speakers if they exhibit competence (as demonstrated by the speaker's grasp of the subject matter) and good moral character.

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

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A model of human action based on the principle that people are motivated to act on the basis of their needs.

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expectancy-outcome values theory

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A theory of persuasion developed by Icek Aizen and Martin Fishbein positing that audience members act according to the perceived costs and benefits (“value”) associated with a particular action; useful when developing a persuasive speech targeting behavior.

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elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion

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A model of persuasion that states that people process persuasive messages by one of two routes — either central processing or peripheral processing — depending on their degree of involvement in the message.

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central processing

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A mode of processing a persuasive message that involves thinking critically about the contents of the message and the strength and quality of the speaker's arguments. People who seriously consider what the speaker's message means to them are most likely to experience a relatively enduring change in thinking.

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peripheral processing

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A mode of processing a persuasive message that does not consider the quality of the speaker's message but is influenced by such noncontent issues as the speaker's appearance or reputation, certain slogans or one-liners, or obvious attempts to manipulate emotions. Peripheral processing of messages occurs when people lack the motivation or the ability to pay close attention to the issues.

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speaker credibility

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The quality that reveals that a speaker has a good grasp of the subject, displays sound reasoning skills, is honest and nonmanipulative, and is genuinely interested in the welfare of audience members; a modern version of ethos.

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argument

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A stated position, with support, for or against an idea or issue; contains the core elements of claim, evidence, and warrants.

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claim

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The declaration of a state of affairs, often stated as a thesis statement, in which a speaker attempts to prove something.

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claim of fact

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An argument that focuses on whether something is or is not true or whether something will or will not happen.

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claim of policy

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A claim that recommends that a specific course of action be taken, or approved, by an audience.

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claim of value

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A claim that addresses issues of judgment.

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evidence

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Supporting material that provides grounds for belief.

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warrant

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A core component of an argument that serves to justify the link made between the claim and the evidence.

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speculative claims

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A type of claim of fact that addresses questions for which answers are not yet available.

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motivational warrant

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A warrant that uses the needs, desires, emotions, and values of audience members as the basis for accepting evidence in support of a claim.

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authoritative warrant

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A warrant that appeals to the credibility the audience assigns to the source of the evidence; also called an ethos-based appeal.

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substantive warrant

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A warrant that relies on factual evidence to link a claim to evidence. See also warrant by analogy, warrant by cause, and warrant by sign.

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warrants by cause

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The provision of a cause-effect relationship as proof of a claim.

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warrants by sign

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A statement based on an inference that such a close relationship exists between two variables that the presence or absence of one may be taken as an indication of the presence or absence of the other (e.g., smoke is a sign of fire).

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warrant by analogy

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A statement, based on the comparison of two similar cases, that infers that what is true in one case is true in the other. The assumption is that the characteristics of case A and case B are so similar, if not the same, that what is true for B must also be true for A.

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inoculation effect

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A theory of persuasive speaking in which a speaker anticipates and addresses counterarguments. The theory rests on the biological principle of inducing resistance through exposure to small quantities of a harmful substance.

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logical fallacy

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A statement that is based on an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning.

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begging the question

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A fallacious argument presented in such a way that it is necessarily true, even though no evidence has been presented.

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bandwagoning

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A fallacious argument that presents itself as true because “general opinion” supports it.

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either-or fallacy

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A fallacious argument that is stated in terms of two alternatives only, even though there may be multiple ways of viewing the issue.

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ad hominem argument

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A form of fallacious argument that targets people instead of issues and attempts to incite an audience's dislike for an opponent.

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red herring fallacy

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A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker relies on irrelevant information to support an argument.

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appeal to tradition

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A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker argues for the truth of a claim based solely on common practices in the past.

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target audience

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Those individuals within the broader audience who are most likely to be influenced in the direction the speaker seeks.

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hostile audience or one that strongly disagrees

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One of four potential types of audiences the persuasive speaker may encounter.

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critical and conflicted audience

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Audience members whose attitudes are critical or conflicted with respect to the speaker's topic.

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narrative organizational pattern

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A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speech unfolds as a story, with characters, plot, setting, and vivid imagery. In practice, this pattern often is combined with other organizational patterns.

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sympatheic audience

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An audience that already shares much agreement with the speaker; one of four types of potential audiences that persuasive speakers may encounter.

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uninformed, less educated, or apathetic audience

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An audience that knows or cares little about a specific topic.

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topical pattern of arangement

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A pattern of organizing main points as subtopics or categories of the speech topic; of all organizational patterns, this one offers the most freedom to structure speech points as desired.

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specific speech purpose

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A refined statement of purpose that zeroes in more closely than the general purpose on the goal of the speech. See also general speech purpose.

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problem-solution pattern of arrangement

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A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem first, and then provide justification for a proposed solution.

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problem-cause-solution pattern of arrangement

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A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate (1) the nature of the problem, (2) reasons for the problem, (3) unsatisfactory solutions, and (4) proposed solutions.

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motivated sequence pattern of arrangment

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A five-step process of persuasion developed by Alan Monroe.

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comparative advantage pattern of arrangement

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A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speaker's viewpoint or proposal is shown to be superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals.

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refutation pattern of organization

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A pattern of organizing speech points in which each main point addresses and then refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to the speaker's position.

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special occasion speech

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A speech whose general purpose is to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda.

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social agenda-setting

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In a special occasion speech, a type of speech purpose whose goal is to focus on a social/political issue and reinforce a message that relates to it.

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speech of introduction

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A short speech defined by two goals: to prepare or “warm up” audience members for the main speaker and to motivate them to listen to what that speaker has to say.

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speech of acceptance

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A speech made in response to receiving an award. Its purpose is to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker.

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speech of presentation

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A speech whose purpose is twofold: to communicate the meaning of the award and to explain why the recipient is receiving it.

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toast

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A brief tribute to a person or an event being celebrated.

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eulogy

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A speech whose purpose is to celebrate and commemorate the life of someone while consoling those who are left behind; typically delivered by close friends and family members.

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after-dinner speech

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A speech that is likely to occur before, after, or during a formal dinner, a breakfast or lunch seminar, or other type of business, professional, or civic meeting.

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canned speeches

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A speech used repeatedly and without sufficient adaptation to the rhetorical speech situation.

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sermons

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A speech of inspiration given in a religious context.

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speech of inspiration

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A speech whose purpose is to inspire or motivate the audience to positively consider, reflect on, and sometimes even act on the speaker's words.