Psychomotor

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Motor skills

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activities or tasks that require voluntary control over movements of the joints and body segments to achieve a goal

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Motor learning

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emphasizes the acquisition of motor skills, the preformance enhancement of motor skills, the behavioral and/or neurological changes that occur when skills are learnt and the variable affecting it.

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motor control

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how our neuromuscular functions to activate and coordinate the body parts involved in the preformance of a motor skill. intrest in the diffenece b/w new and old learners, experience.

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motor development

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human development from infancy to old age with specific interest in issues related to either motor learning or control

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motor unit recruitment

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the number of muscle fibers active increases to increase force.

Process of recruitment movers from the smallest motor units to the largest

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Henneman size principle

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motor recruitment goes from the smallest motor units to the largest, 1957

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Motor unit

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groups of muscle fibers served by 1 alpha motor unit. Small muscles have few, sometimes only one. large ones can have as many as 700.

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Psychomotor

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all motor functions and their relationship to mental activities

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2 main aspects of motor control

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stabilising and moving body in space

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Spinal cord

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Receives and processes sensory information

Controls movement (CPG)

Leads into the brain stem, which contains the medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain.

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Brainstem contains...

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medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain

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Medulla oblongata

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Contains several centersresponsible for autonomouslife support

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Pons

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Transmits informationregarding movement fromthe brain hemisphere to thecerebellum

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Cerebellum

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Behind brainstem.

Modulates the strengthand range of motion Involved in motor learning

3 parts

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3 parts of cerebellum

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Vestibulocerebellum

Spinocerebellum

Neocerebellum

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Vestibulocerebellum

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Balance and Stability• Vestibular System

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Spinocerebellum:

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• Receives sensory information from the spinal cord• Important for the control of movement (smooth)• Especially the coordination of the trunk

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Neocerebellum:

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• Does not receive information from the spinal cord but receives projectionsfrom the cortex

• Internal model/representation of our world

• Laceration causes ataxia (clumsiness)

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Cerebellar Ataxia

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disorder that occurs when the cerebellum becomes inflamed or damaged

poor coordination, muscle control

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The Midbrain

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Controls several motor andsensory functions, such aseye movement andcoordination of visual andauditory reflexes.

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The diencephalon

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The thalamus handles mostof the information whichreaches the cerebral cortexfrom the rest of the CNS

• The hypothalamus regulatesautonomic, endocrine andvisceral functions

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The cerebralhemispheres

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The cerebral cortex (the wrinkled outer layer): 4 lobes

Three internal structures: • basal ganglia, • hippocampus • amygdala.

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Frontal Lobe

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contains the motor cortex – planning, voluntary movement, some aspects of language.

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Parietal Lobe

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sensory integration e.g., managing proprioceptive information of the skin (such as heat, cold, pressure and pain). Relationship « in real time » with the motor areas.

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Temporal Lobe

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Speech, hearing and memory

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Occipital Lobe

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Visual cortex –manages all visualinformation

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Cerebral palsy

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a disorder that affects muscle tone, movement, and motor skills (the ability to move in a coordinated and purposeful way)

Due to lack of oxygen during birth

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reflexes

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occur in spinal motor circuit

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proprioceptive sensory feedback

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loop between sensory neuron and motor neuron

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Reflex theory

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Sir Charles Sherrington

Reflexes are building blocks of complex behavoir. work together in sequence to achieve a common purpose.

limitations: novel mvmts, mvmt w/o stimulation, mvmt w/o enough time for sensory feedback, single stimulus resulting in multiple reactions

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Reflex arc

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Receptor, conductor, and effector

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monosynaptic

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Stimulus → Response, 30-50ms

receptors - spinal cord - alpha motor neuron

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polysynaptic

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stimulus→ Response → Response, 50-80 ms

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Latency of response

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refers to the time between the stimulus and a muscle activation response

This is measured throughelectromyography (EMG).

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Sherrington’s Chaining of Reflexes

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argued that movements can be controlled at the levelof the spinal cord through a chaining of reflexes (disabled cats have walking reflex)

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Voluntary mvmts

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goal directed, longer pathway, cortical level control, 120-180ms, require person to pass 3 stages of info processing and requires ATTENTION

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3 stages of information processing

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Stimulus identification(perception)

Response selection(decision)

Movement programming(action)

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Factors Influencing RT

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Number of S-R combinations

• S-R Compatibility

• Complexity

• Pratice

• Timing uncertainty

• Stimulus intensity

• Age, intelligence

• Stress

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Hick’s Law

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The time it takes to make a decision increases as thenumber of alternatives increases

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Characteristics of voluntary mvmt

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• Flexible

• Same movement, muscles and various joints

• The motor equivalent

• Unique

• The same movement is repeated in exactly the same manner

• Constant

• Despite their uniqueness, the movements can be repeated in theirspatial and temporal characteristics

• Modifiable

• Ability to change a movement “on the go”

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closed-loop system

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• Movement based onsensory feedback

• Flexibility• Adaptability• Precision• Slow

• Ex: Heating system

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Open-loop control system

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• Structured to move forward (feedforward)• Quick and powerful movements• Less effective in unstable situations• Ex: traffic lights

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Hierarchy theory

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top down control, lines of control do not cross

idea that reflexes can be used to determine neural age.

proper function is top down, higher centers inhibiting lower reflex centers

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5 major goals of motor development

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1. To determine common and characteristic changes inbehavior, function, and appearance across the life span

2. To establish when these changes occur

3. To describe what causes these changes

4. To determine whether change can be predicted

5. To determine whether these changes are individual oruniversal

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Infantile Reflexes

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Involuntary movements following a stimulus

• Evaluate the appearance and disappearance of reflexes can give us ideas of the development of the infant

• Recurrance may indicate injury to the CNS!

conception to 1 yr

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Types of infantile reflexes

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Primative Reflexes

Postural Reactions

Reflex Locomotion

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Primative Reflexes

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• From birth until about 4 months • Lower brain centers – primative reflexes • Ex: sucking reflex, palmar grasp reflex, Babinski

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Postural Reactions

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• Help maintain posture in a changingenvironment• Appears after about 2 months• Ex: keep your head elevated to ensurepassage of air: parachute reflex• Some don’t disappear!

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Reflex Locomotion

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Resemble the voluntary movement, but disappears for months before the child is trying to do the movement volunarily. • Walking, swimming, and crawling

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STUDY MOTOR DEVELOPMENT CONTINUUM

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STUDY MOTOR DEVELOPMENT CONTINUUM

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Rudimentary Movements

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Cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles,

sitting, rolling over, walking, etc

Birth to 2 yrs

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Cephalocaudal

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growth that proceeds longitudinally from the head to feet

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proximodistal development

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growth that proceeds from the center of the body to its periphery

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Fundamental Motor Skills

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2 to 6 yrs, throwing, jumping, swimming

extremely important for future PA

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maturational persepective

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bio mechanical descriptive period (60-70s)

Lotas Halverson- longitudinal observation of children doing FMS - stages of development - environment can influence speed of development, as the person matures, they develop ms

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Sport/specialized skills

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6 yrs – 12 yrs

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growth and refinement

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13-18yrs

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Peak preformance

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18- late 30s

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Ecological perspective

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Takes into account many constraints of systems that exist both in the body and outside when observing the development of motor skills across the lifetime

Considers motor development to be the development of multiple systems, not just the CNS, unlike the maturation perspective

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Dynamic systems approach

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Part of ecological perspective

(Kugler, Kelso, Turvey – Bernstein) • Organization of physical and chemical systems constrains behaviour • Structure of the adult human hip joint encourages (constrains) upright walking • Motor skill development is the product of many underlying systems (nervous, skeletal, muscular, etc.)

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Tenets of Dynamic Systems Theory

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• All systems have their own rateof development

• The skill will emerge when allsystems are at the level neededto perform the skill

• The last system to “kick in” iscalled the rate limiting system

• Example-walking

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Newells constraints model (1986)

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« Movements emerge from interactions between the organization,the environment in which the movement taking place, and the task. Ifany of these factors change, the resulting movement will change. »

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Types of constraints in Newells Model

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Individual: structural (growth and age) and functional (emotional state)

Environmental: physical, sociocultural

Task

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Modifications by sport governing bodies

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modified task to accomodate other constraints

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Rate limiter

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the individual constrait that holds a motor skill back (dynamic systems approach)

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Ability

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stable, genetically defined (innate), base for different skills not modifiable by practice or experience

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Skill

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ability to preform with maximum certainty and a minimum amount of energy/time

• Developed and changed with practice

• Dependent on ability

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purpose of motor learning

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1. Maximum certainty2. Minimal energy (physical or mental)3. Minimum time

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Prefomance

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observable behavior, temporary, may not be due to practice conditions, influenced by preformance variables

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learning

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inferred from preformance (cannot be observed directly), relatively permanent, due to practice conditions. not influenced by preformance variables

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Learning definition

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“Learning is a change in the capability of a person toperform a skill that must be inferred from a relativelypermanent improvement in performance as a result ofpractice or experience” (Magill, 2010, p.249)

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Learning characteristics (5)

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1. Improvement • Increased level of skill at a later time compared to an earlier time

2. Consistency • As learning progresses, performance is more consistent

3. Stability • Skill not affected so much by perturbations • Internal condition: stress • External condition: weather, obstacles

4. Persistence • Increased amount of persistence of performance capability over a longer period of time (today tomorrow next week)

5. Adaptability • Increased capability to adapt to a variety of performance and context characteristics

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Preformance curves

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- record levels of preformance

- error measures

- Time to complete a task

- points scored

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Error measure meaning

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constant error- bias

variable error- consistency

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Types of graphs

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linear, negatively accelerated, positively accelerated, s shaped

could be reversed if its time to complete

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Kinematic preformance curves

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• Kinematic measures are performance productionmeasures. Three common kinematic measures are• Displacement• Velocity• Acceleration

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Instruction features

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could cause artificial inflation or deflation

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Assessing learning by tests

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Pre-test, practice, post-test

Retention test

Transfer test

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Retention test

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Retention test: interval of time passes after practice and the person is asked to preform the same task again. Remove manipulation/instruction feature.

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Transfer test

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• Novel situations adapted to the characteristics of a new situation 1. Novel context characteristics • Change physical environment • Change performance situation 2. Novel variation of skill • Perform a variation of the skill

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What do transfer tests test for vs retention?

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Retention:

Improvement ConsistencyPersistence

Transfer:

Improvement Consistency Persistence Stability Adaptability

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Using motor learning

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Can be applied to practical considerations and the organization of the practice.

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Practical considerations

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1. Motivation

2. structure of instruction

3. Mental practice

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Organization of the practice

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1. Types of practice

2. Practice structure (Random vs blocked, constant vs variable)

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Other factors to consider while organizing a practice

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characteristics of the task, person, level of experience, intellectual capacity, learning style

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Intrisic feedback

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exteroception of proprioception

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Extrinsic feedback

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from an outside source

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Types of extrinsic feedback

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based on errors: helps guide proper mvmt, for beginners

Corrective: The good parts

A combo is best

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Features of extrinsic feedback

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Quantity: decreases w/ complexity of task

Accuracy: general vs specific, direction vs magnitude

Timing, instant affects intrinsic feedback, more in the beginning of practice, less at end