Psychology (Units 3 & 4) - Term Test 2

Front 1

Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)

Back 1

Stimulation technique. Electrical current delivered through electrodes directly contacting specific brain areas

Front 2

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 2

Electrical Recording. Invented in 1929 by psychiatrist Hans Berger; Electrodes attached to scalp record electrical activity of groups of neurons (reading of brain activity by putting sensors on scalp)

Front 3

Computerized Axial Tomography (CT)

Back 3

Brain Imaging. Computer-enhanced X-ray of brain structure; takes pictures of narrow slice of brain (just looks at brain structure)

Front 4

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Back 4

Brain Imaging. Measures brain activity (metabolism, blood flow, and neurotransmitter activity); radioactive glucose injected into blood stream (activated areas of the brain become visible)

Front 5

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Back 5

Brain Imaging. Produces 3-D, high resolution pictures of brain mainly of structure; measures body's response to magnetic impulse; takes images several minutes apart

Front 6

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Back 6

Brain Imaging. Produces 3-D, high resolution pictures of brain mainly of structure; measures body's response to magnetic impulse; takes images only seconds apart; shows changes in brain activity

Front 7

Hemispherectomy

Back 7

Surgical procedure in which an entire hemisphere of the brain is removed

Front 8

Brain Plasticity

Back 8

Brain can change shape; new neurons are formed, taking functions of dysfunctional/impaired side of the brain (rewiring)

Front 9

Rasmussen Syndrome

Back 9

Seizures that cannot be controlled with medicine

Front 10

Split-brain Surgery

Back 10

Cutting the corpus callosum (connection between brain hemispheres); done on ''Joe'' to stop seizures

Front 11

Pre-frontal Lobotomy

Back 11

Cutting connections between frontal lobe and the rest of the brain; vegetative state

Front 12

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Back 12

Composed of the brain and the spinal cord

Front 13

Peripheral Nervous System

Back 13

Connects Central Nervous System (CNS) with muscles, glands, and sensory receptors

Front 14

Somatic Nervous System

Back 14

Subdivision of the Peripheral Nervous System; triggers voluntary muscle activation through motor neurons/nerves (efferent)

Front 15

Autonomic Nervous System

Back 15

Subdivision of the Peripheral Nervous System; Gland and involuntary muscle activation; Sympathetic (fight-or-flight; activated mode) and Parasympathetic (deactivation)

Front 16

Sympathetic Autonomic Nervous System

Back 16

Mobilize bodily resources for emergency (fight-or-flight); i.e. drains blood from periphery of body to reduce bleeding in injury, slows down digestion, triggers adrenal glands (adrenaline)

Front 17

Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System

Back 17

Conserves bodily resources (i.e. save and store energy, slow heart rate, decrease blood pressure, promote digestion)

Front 18

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Back 18

Nourishes brain; serves as protective cushion

Front 19

Glia

Back 19

Structural support of neuron, insulation, and nourishment

Front 20

Neuron

Back 20

Soma (body), dendrites (receive info), axon (includes myelin sheath + terminal buttons; transmits info through neurotransmitters

Front 21

Myelination

Back 21

Allows for more accurate information transmissions

Front 22

Properties of Axon

Back 22

Contains electrically charged particles called ions (Na+, K+, Cl-, A-); Cell membrane acts as a selective filter, at different times allowing different ions through; stimulation from surrounding neurons sets in motion the opening and closing of certain ion channels along axon of a neuron.

Front 23

Resting Neuron

Back 23

Higher concentration of negative ions inside cell; Action potential = ~ -70mV; Polarization

Front 24

Active Neuron

Back 24

Stimulation of neuron results in higher concentration of positive ions inside cell; action potential = ~ +40 mV; Depolarization

Front 25

Action Potential

Back 25

the first causes a chain effect (multiple action potentials); exchange of chemicals through the axon; leads to transmission of information to the next cell

Front 26

Depolarization requires?

Back 26

Sufficiently strong stimulation coming in from other neurons; insufficient graded potentials won't start an action potential

Front 27

All-or-none Law

Back 27

Neuron fires at full-strength or not at all (starting action potential and nervous impulse or not)

Front 28

Absolute Refractory Period

Back 28

When neuron can't fire, not sufficient to start action potential

Front 29

Relative Refractory Period

Back 29

When neuron fires at elevated threshold; starting action potential

Front 30

Synaptic Transmission

Back 30

Following action potential, neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles, travelling across the synaptic cleft​ and finally binding to 'custom' receptor sites in postsynaptic neuron, following, they activate or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron; after this process, neurotransmitters are either broken down or reabsorbed (reuptake) by cell to be reused

Front 31

Neurotransmitters

Back 31

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another; send two types of messages: excitatory (postsynaptic potential that increases probability of action potential in postsynaptic neuron) or inhibitory (postsynaptic potential that decreases probability of action potential in postsynaptic neuron); linked to specific behavioural phenomenon; react to psychoactive drugs

Front 32

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Back 32

Activates voluntary muscles; curare (paralytic drug) is an antagonist; contributes to attention, arousal, memory; undersupply related to memory loss (Alzheimer's); memory drugs are agonists; Nicotine is an agonist

Front 33

Dopamine (DA)

Back 33

Monoamine; Contributes to voluntary movement and positive emotional states; undersupply linked to Parkinson's disease; L-DOPA, cocaine, and amphetamine are agonists; Oversupply linked to Schizophrenia; some anti-psychotic drugs are antagonists; marijuana-schizophrenia link identified

Front 34

Serotonin

Back 34

Monoamine; involved in regulation of sleep, wakefulness, eating behaviour, and aggression; imbalances linked to psychological disorders such as depression; Prozac works by preveting the reuptake; eating disorders; obsessive-compulsive disorders; ecstacy acts as agonist

Front 35

Norepinephrine

Back 35

Monoamine; low levels linked to depression; amphetamines and cocaine are agonists

Front 36

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Back 36

Amino acid; Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potential; imbalances linked to anxiety disorders

Front 37

Glutamate

Back 37

Amino acid; contributes to learning and memory

Front 38

Endorphins

Back 38

Opiate-like substances that act as pain modulators; morphine and heroin are agonists; explain runner's high

Front 39

Three Major areas of Brain

Back 39

Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain

Front 40

Hindbrain

Back 40

Brainstem: Medulla (heart rate, blood circulation, respiration, muscle tone, reflexes), and Pons (sleep, dreaming, arousal, connects brain stem to cerebellum).

Cerebellum: Coordination of movement, equilibrium, balance, neural circuits run from cerebellum to pre-frontal cortex (attention, planning, visual perception)

Front 41

Midbrain

Back 41

Segment of brainstem between hindbrain and forebrain; important in integrating sensory processes; seat of dopamine producing neurons that project to higher cerebral centres; reticular formation runs from hindbrain to midbrain and beyond (modulates muscle reflexes, breathing, pain, perception; regulates sleep and arousal)

Front 42

Forebrain/Cerebrum

Back 42

Thalamus: reception and redirection of signals to appropriate brain area

Hypothalamus: controls ANS, endocrine system connection (hormones), regulates survival drives (fighting, fleeing, feeding, mating)

Limbic System: regulation of emotion, memory, motivation (includes thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus [formation and retrieval of memory], and amygdala [aggression, fear, pleasure])

Front 43

Frontal Lobe

Back 43

Speech - Broca's area (left hemisphere); motor cortex; prefrontal cortex (calm decision-making; problem results in lack of control of emotions and impulsion)

Front 44

Parietal Lobe

Back 44

Somatosensory cortex (sense of touch); spatial sense and navigation

Front 45

Temporal Lobe

Back 45

Speech - Wernicke's area (left hemisphere); auditory cortex

Front 46

Laterization

Back 46

Localization of some functions in one of the two brain hemispheres

Front 47

Left Hemisphere

Back 47

Verbal processing (Broca's and Wernicke's areas); logical and mathematical abilities; positive emotions; right visual field processed

Front 48

Right Hemisphere

Back 48

Holistic hemisphere; spatial relation (sense of direction); melodies (musical abilities); negative emotions; left visual field processed

Front 49

Information Processing

Back 49

We look with our eyes, yet we see with our brain; seeing is more than the vision of the environment, it's the processing of information

Front 50

Sensation

Back 50

Stimulus-detection process by which sense organs respond to and translate environmental stimuli into nervous impulses that are sent to the brain

Front 51

Perception

Back 51

Active process of organizing this stimulus input and giving it meaning

Front 52

Visual Sensory System

Back 52

stimulated by light waves; rods and cones are receptors located in the retina of the eye

Front 53

Auditory Sensory System

Back 53

Stimulated by sound waves; hair cells are receptors located on the basilar membrane

Front 54

Gustatory Sensory System

Back 54

Stimulated by chemical substances; taste cells are receptors located in the taste buds of the tongue

Front 55

Olfactory Sensory System

Back 55

Stimulated by chemical substances; olfactory cilia are receptors located in upper nasal passages

Front 56

Tactile Sensory System

Back 56

Stimulated by mechanical, thermal, chemical energy; at least 6 types of receptors located in the skin

Front 57

Kinesthetic Sensory System

Back 57

Receptors in muscles, tendons, joints

Front 58

Vestibular Sensory System

Back 58

Receptors in inner ear

Front 59

Sensory Deprivation

Back 59

Interrupts with emotional and cognitive processes (central executive); can lead to hallucination (lack of information forces brain to create its own)

Front 60

Physical Properties of Light

Back 60

Wavelength is the colour/hue (blue - short, green - medium, red - long); amplitude is the brightness; purity is the saturation (mix of wavelenghts)

Front 61

Eye

Back 61

Houses and channels light to neural tissue

Front 62

Cornea

Back 62

Light entry point; repairs fast due to survival necessities

Front 63

Pupil

Back 63

Adjustable opening that controls amount of light

Front 64

Iris

Back 64

Muscles that adjust pupil size

Front 65

Lens

Back 65

Elastic structure that focuses light on retina

Front 66

Retina

Back 66

Receptor site; houses photoreceptors (translate light waves into nerve impulses - transduction);

Composed of three layers:

- Photoreceptor

- Rods (black and white; low illumination; concentrated at periphery, none at fovea)

- Cones (Colour; high illumination; concentrated at and around fovea)

- Bipolar cells

- Ganglion

- Optic Nerve (bundle of ganglion cells axons)

- Optic Disk (where optic nerves leave the eye; blind spot)

Front 67

Visual Information Processing (Brain)

Back 67

Neural signals move along optic nerve to optic chiasm (point where optic nerves meet and cross over to project at the opposite side of brain) and then to the brain.

Two Pathways:

- Main pathway

+ Lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus -> primary visual cortex (occipital lobes)

- Second pathway

+ Superior colliculus -> thalamus -> primary visual cortex (makes possible coordination of visual and other sensory input)

Front 68

Primary Visual Cortex

Back 68

Specific regions of the retina are processed are processed in specific areas of the visual cortex; feature detectors include neurons in the visual cortex that fire selectively to stimuli with certain characteristics (e.g. horizontal lines)

Front 69

Ventral Stream

Back 69

Temporal lobe (''what? pathway'') -> perception of form and colour (i.e. face detection); impairment results in visual agnosia (problems recognizing objects) and prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)

Front 70

Dorsal Stream

Back 70

Parietal lobe (''where? pathway) -> perception of motion and depth

Front 71

Bottom-up Processing

Back 71

Begins with analysis of individual stimulus features and builds up to unified perception; deals more with assumptions and creating a circumstance due to expectancy

Detect specific feature of stimulus -> combine specific features into more complex forms -> recognize stimulus

Front 72

Top down Processing

Back 72

Begins with perceptual whole and then determine degree of fit with stimulus features; thought out process due to knowledge

Formulate perceptual hypothesis about the nature of the stimulus as a whole -> select and examine features to check hypothesis -> recognize stimulus

Front 73

Gestalt Principles of Organization

Back 73

Figure-ground, Similarity, Proximity, Closure, Continuity

Front 74

Figure-ground

Back 74

Dividing visual displays into figure (thing being looked at) and ground (background against which it stands); fundamental way in which people organize visual perceptions

Front 75

Similarity

Back 75

People tend to group stimuli that are similar

Front 76

Proximity

Back 76

Elements that are close to one another tend to be grouped together

Front 77

Closure

Back 77

Viewers tend to supply missing elements to close or complete a familiar figure

Front 78

Continuity

Back 78

Viewers tend to see elements in ways that produce smooth continuation

Front 79

Perceptual Consistancies

Back 79

Recognize stimuli under varying conditions (shape, brightness, size)

Front 80

Depth/Distance Perception

Back 80

Image on the retina is 2 dimensional but we live in and perceive a 3-D world; possible through binocular and monocular cues

Front 81

Binocular Cues

Back 81

Cues from both eyes together; Retinal disparity (objects project images to slightly different location on the right and left retinas, so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object); Convergence (muscles move closer/farther to adapt to depth and distance)

Front 82

Monocular Cues

Back 82

Cues from a single eye; Motion parallax (images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates); Accomodation; Pictorial depth cues (clues about a distance that can be given in a flat picture)

Front 83

Aspects of Pictorial Depth Cues

Back 83

Light and shadow, linear perspective, interposition, height in horizontal plane, texture, clarity, relative size