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334 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology (Definition) |
Psychology is the study of mental processes and behaviour in humans. |
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Behaviour (Definition) |
Any observable action made by a living person. |
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Mental Processes (Definition) |
An individuals thoughts, feelings that are personal and cannot be directly observed. |
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How are Mental Processes and Behaviour linked? |
Mental Processes and Behaviour are interrelated as mental processes are often interpreted by observing behaviour. |
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Psychiatrist (Definition) |
A psychiatrist is a qualified medical doctor who has obtained additional qualifications to become a specialist in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention in mental illnessess and emotional problems. |
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Psychologist (Definition) |
A psychologist is a person who is professionally qualified in psychology. |
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Clinical Psychologist |
Offers a wide range of psychological services to people of all ages. Clinical Psychologists have specialist training in the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental health problems and mental illnesses. |
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Clinical Neuropsychology |
Clinical Neuropsychologists assess the changes in behaviour and mental abilities following brain damage or abnormal brain function. |
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Community Psychology |
Mainly concerned with community issues and helping people achieve their goals in areas such as community health and welfare. |
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Counselling Psychology |
Assisting people of all ages to deal effectively with all kinds of personal and relationship issues that impact on their mental health and wellbeing. |
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Educational or Developmental Psychology |
Combination of Educational Psychology; Focuses on learning in an educational setting
Developmental Psychology: Focuses on the ways in which behaviour and mental processes change throughout the lifetime. |
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Forensic Psychology |
A psychologist who is involved in the legal and criminal justice system. These psychologists may help police, provide expert opinion to the judge etc. |
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Health Psychology |
Specialises in understanding the effects of psychological factors related to physical health and fitness. |
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Organisational Psychology: |
Focuses on ways of assisting organisations to become more effective and productive while maintaining the wellbeing of their employees. |
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Sport and Exercise Psychology |
Applies psychological theories and ideas in helping all types of athletes achieve peak performance. |
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Biological Psychology |
Focuses on biological bodily structures, systems and activites that are associated wth behavioural and mental processes. |
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Cognitive Psychology |
Focuses on how people acquire, process, remember and use information. |
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Personality Psychology |
Studies people's characteristics and ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes up a person's personality. |
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Social Psychology |
Studies how people's thoughts, feelings and behaviours can change in different social situations and how others can affect them. |
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What is the Nature v Nurture debate? |
The debate involves whether we are born with our thoughts, feelings and behaviour (via genes) or whether we acquire them through life experiences. Also called (Heredity v Environment) |
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What is the Mind - Body problem |
Involves questions about the relationship between brain activity and concious experience. |
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Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt |
Structuralism focuses on the structure of conciousness, like what makes up conciousness and how they are interrelated. |
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Functionalism - William James |
Functionalism focuses on studying the functions or purposes that mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. Functionalists are interested in how and why our thoughts and feelings lead to how we behave. |
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Psychoanalaysis - Sigmund Freid |
Psychoanalaysis focuses on the roles of unconcious conflicts and motivations in understand and explaining mental processes. |
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Behaviourism - John B. Watson |
Behaviourism involves understanding and explaining how behaviour is learned and moulded by experience. |
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Humanisn - Carl Rogers |
Humanism is an approach to understanding b and explaining behaviour and mental processes that focuses on the uniqueness of each individual person and potential of all human beings to fulfill their lives and the fact that everyone is born 'good'. |
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Biological Perspective |
The biological perspective focuses on the biological influences on behaviour and mental processes, including the brain and nervous system, hormone system, the immune system and genetics. |
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Behavioural Perspective |
The behavioural perspective focuses on how behaviour is acquired or modified by environmental consequences such as rewards and punishments. |
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Reinforcement |
The principle of reinforcement states that the consequences of a behaviour determine whether the behaviour will be more or less likely to be repeated. |
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Cognitive Perspective |
Focuses on how we acquire, process, remember and use information about us and the world around us. |
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Sociocultural Perspective |
Focuses on the roles of social and cultural influences on human behaviour and mental processes. |
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An Eclectic Perspective |
The eclectic perspective draws on many theories, ideas and research methods from different perspective. |
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Scientific Method |
Refers to the systematic approach for planning, conducting and reporting research which involves collecting empirical evidence. |
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Empirical Evidence |
Empirical evidence is data that is collected by direct observation, or more frequently in psychology, by experimentation. |
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Replication |
Replication involves conducting a study again to ensure the similar results are achieved and to ensure that the results are valid and can be applied to a wider population. |
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Why is psychology regarded as a science? |
Because psychologists devise experiments to test their theories and collect their data much like Chemistry, Biology and Physics. |
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Step 1 - Psych Research |
Identification of the Problem: First step is to identify the problem or topic of interest to be researched. Researcher can also look at previous research into that topic. |
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Step 2 - Psych Research |
Construction of Hypothesis: The second step in psychological research is to construct a hypothesis for the research. |
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Hypothesis |
A hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. |
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Characteristics of Hypothesis |
- Prepared as a carefully written worded statement - Expressed clearly and precisely - Written as single sentence - Stated in a way that can be tested |
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Step 3 - Psych Research |
Designing the Method: Third step is to determine how the hypothesis will be tested. When designing method, researcher must also decide which participants, how many participants, how they'll be tested, how they will be allocated and how they'll be selected. |
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Participants |
Participants are the people who take part in the research |
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Step 4 - Psych Research |
Collecting the Data: Fourth step in psychological research is to collect the data. There are various ways for psychologists to collect their data |
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Step 5 - Psych Research |
Analysing the Data: Once the data has been collected, next step is to summarise, organise and represent the data in a logical way to help determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not. |
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Raw Data |
Raw data is data that hasn't yet been organised and summarised. Raw data almost is never included in the report however it is included in the appendices sometimes. |
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Step 6 - Psych Research |
Interpreting the Data: Once data has been analysed, the data needs to be interpreted and explained. This includes drawing a conclusion from the results obtained. |
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Conclusion |
A conclusion is a judgement about what the results of a research study mean. |
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Generalisation |
A generalisation is a judgement about how widely the finding of a research study can be applied. |
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External Validity |
External Validity means that the that the conclusion(s) made from the research can be generalised to the population from which the sample in the study was drawn. |
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Step 7 - Psych Research |
The final step involves reporting the research findings to other who may be interested in the research. |
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Benefits of Reporting the Research Study |
Reporting the research informs other psychologists, researchers and even the general public. They can check the accuracy of the findings by replicating the study. It also enables the general public to benefit from the findings. |
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Research Method |
A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data. |
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Experiment |
An experiment is used to test whether one variable influences or causes a change in another variable. An experiment enables the researcher to investigate and find out the causes of things. |
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Variable |
A variable is something that vary in amount or kind over time. |
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Independent Variable |
In an experiment, one variable is changed to test if and how it affects another variable. The variable that is manupilated or changed is the independent variable. |
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Dependent Variable |
The variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the IV is called the dependent variable. |
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Extraneous Variables |
In an experiment, an extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV. |
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Experimental Group |
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the IV is called the experimental group. |
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Control Group |
In an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the IV is called the control group. The control group provides a standard of comparison against which the experimenter can compare the performance of the experimental group in order to determine whether the independent variable has affected the dependent variable. |
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Advantages of Experimental Research |
1. The IV can be manipulated to test the effect it has on the DV, therefore making it possible to test if there is a cause and effect relationship.
2. The experimenter can report the findings in such a way so that others can replicate the experimental research and which ensures greater validity and reliability in the results obtained. |
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Disadvantages of Experimental Research |
1. It is often impossible to control all extraneous variables because of the unpredictability of real life.
2. Some things cannot be measured in the laboratory. Nor is the laboratory the best place to test variables such as love, hate and grief. |
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Sample |
A sample is a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a wider range of research interest. |
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Population |
The term population refers to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn. |
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Sampling |
The process of selecting participants for a sample is called sampling. |
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Representative Sample |
A representative sample is a sample that is approximately the same as the population from which it is drawn in every important participant characteristic. |
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Random Sampling |
Random Sampling is a sampling procedure that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has a genuinely equal chance of being selected as a participant for the research study. |
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Stratified Sampling |
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest |
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Random Stratified Sampling |
Random Stratified Sampling involves selecting a random sample from each stratum of a stratified sample |
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Random Allocation |
In random allocation, also called random assignment, participants selected for the experiment are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group. |
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Descriptive Research |
Descriptive Research focuses on studying and describing one or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour as they occur at a given time and place without necessarily explaining why. |
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Case Study |
A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group or situation. |
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Advantages of a Case Study |
- Case studies can be a valuable source of hypotheses for further research - There is no manipulation of variables |
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Disadvantages of a Case Study |
- Can't test cause and effect relationship - Small sample size - Susceptible to biased information from participant or observer |
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Observation |
Refers to any means by which a phenomenon is studied, including the data that represents a phenomenon such as scores or written responses. |
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Observational Study |
Involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs. |
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Naturalistic Observation |
Naturalistic Observation involves a naturally occuring behaviour of interest is viewed by a researcher in such a way that the presence of the researcher has no influence on the observed behaviour. |
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Participant Observation |
This involves the researchers actually participating in the activity being observed and may make themselves viewable as being part of the group or situation being observed. |
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Non Participant Observation |
When researchers try to conceal their presence while making observations. |
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Advantages of Observational Studies |
- Naturalistic Observation enables researchers to gain more accurate information about the typical behaviours of organisms. - Naturalisic observation doesn't require the co-operation of the participants being observed. |
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Disadvantages of Observational Studies |
- Sometimes it requires alot of patience for the behaviour to occur as the participants aren't under any instructions - It can be difficult to determine the cause of behaviour - Observer bias |
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Data |
In research, the information collected is called data |
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Qualitative Data |
Qualitative Data involves information about the 'qualities' or characteristics of what is being studied. E.g. Verbal Statements, Written Statements, Descriptions made by researcher |
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Quantitative Data |
Quantitative Data includes numerical information on the 'quantity' or amount of what is being observed. E.g. Percentages, Numbers, Averages, Times |
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Qualitative Research |
Involves the collection of qualitative data |
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Quantitative Research |
Involves collection of quantitative data |
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Percentage |
A percentage is a statistic that expresses a number as a fraction of 100. |
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Table |
An orderly arrangement and display of data in columns and rows |
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Graph |
A graph is a pictorial representation of data |
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Bar Chart |
A bar chart is a type of graph that uses seperate bars that are adjacent but not touching to enable comparisons of different categories of data. |
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Histogram |
A histogram is a graph that shows the frequency of which a particular score (or range of) occurs in a set of data |
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Pie Chart |
A pie chart is a circular diagram that shows the proportions of values or scores for different categories of data. |
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Line Graph |
A line graph is a pictorial representation that indicates the relationship between two factors, or two variables in an experiment. |
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Frequency Polygon |
A frequency polygon is a graph that shows the frequency of data using a line graph. |
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Ethics |
Ethics refers to the standard that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct. |
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Roles of Experimenter - Ethics |
- Take into consideration the ethical issues involved - Is responsible for ensuring that research is conducted in a manner that doesn't harm participants - Abide by the participants rights |
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Confidentiality |
Any information that may identify details of their involvement in a study (for example, test results or personal data) cannot be revealed unless their written consent is obtained. |
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Voluntary Participation |
Ensure that the participants voluntarily participate, they shouldn't be forced to. |
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Withdrawal Rights |
The experimenter must inform participants of procedures that are going to be used, that they are free to participate, decline to participate or to withdraw at any time |
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Informed Consent |
Where possible, participants must be informed of what the study is about and the reasons behind it. |
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Deception |
In cases where giving participants full information of the study is deemed inappropriate because it might tamper the results, experimenters must ensure there is no distress involved and participants are given all details at the end of the study. |
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Debriefing |
Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s understanding of the study after it has been conducted. This includes correcting any mistaken attitudes or beliefs that participants may have about the study. At the end, experimenter must also provide an opportunity for participants to obtain results and conclusions. |
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Descriptive Statistics |
Descriptive Statistics are used for summarising and interpret the results obtained from the research. |
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Inferential Statistics |
Inferential Statistics are used for interpreting and giving meaning to results. |
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Sensation |
Sensation is the process in which our sense organs and receptors detect and respond to information that stimulates them. |
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Perception |
Perception refers to the process in which we give meaning to sensory information, resulting in our personal interpretation of that information. |
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Visual Perception System |
The visual perception system consists of the complete network of physiological structures involved in vision. |
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Cornea |
Light initally enters through the cornea, a transparent, convex - shaped covering which protects the eye and helps focus the light onto the retina. It focuses light onto the retina by refracting. |
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Aqueous Humour |
Watery fluid that helps maintain the shape of they eyeball and provides nutrients and oxygen to the eye, aswell as taking away waste products. |
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Pupil |
The pupil is not a structure itself, but rather an opening in the iris that helps control the amount of light entering into the eye. |
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Pupil Dilation and Contraction |
In dim lighted areas, the pupil dilates to let more light in. Convesrly, when there is bright light, the pupil contracts to restrict the amount of light entering the eye. |
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Iris |
The iris surround the pupil and is the coloured part of the eye. The iris is a ring of muscles that expand or contract to change the size of the pupil which subsequently changes the amount of light that enters the eye. |
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Lens |
Having passed through the pupil, light then enters the lens. The lens is a transparent, flexible, convex structure that plays the major role in focusing light onto the retina. |
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How the Lens works |
In order to focus light onto the retina, the lens changes its shape according to the distance of the object being viewed. It's shape is changed by ciliary muscles which are attached to the lens. These muscles expand and contract enabling the lens to bulge to focus on nearby objects and to flatten to focus on objects in the distance. |
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Ciliary Muscles |
Ciliary muscles are attached to the lens and they expand and contract so the lens can expand and contract. |
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Vitreous Humour |
After light passes through the lens, it continues to the vitreous humour. The vitreous humour is a jelly like substance which helps maintain the shape of the eyeball and also helps focus light. |
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Photoreceptors |
Found in the back of the eye in the retina, photoreceptors are light sensitive, visual receptor cells. |
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Retina |
The retina receives and absorbs light, and also processes images. The image that is processed onto the retina is actually upside down and is a back to front image of what is actually being seen. |
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Optic Nerve |
After the retina receives and processed by the retina, the visual information is sent along the optic nerve to a part of the brain called the visual cortex for further processing. |
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Blind Spot |
The blind spot is the point of entry of the optic nerve on the retina which is insensitive to light. |
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Fovea |
The fovea is the central part of the macula, the visual cells in the fovea are cones, The rods are packed right outside the fovea. |
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Reception |
Reception is the process in which the eye receives light incoming from the external environment and focuses it onto the retina. The retina contains millions of specialised neurons that receive and respond to light - photoreceptors. |
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Types of Photoreceptors |
Rods Cones
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Rods |
Rods respond to very low levels of light and are primarily responsible for night vision. |
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Cones |
Cones respond to high levels of light, they are primarily responsible for our vision in well lit conditions. |
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What rods and cones do |
When rods and cones detect light, they respond by changing the light energy into a form of energy that can be sent to the visual cortex. |
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Transduction |
Transduction is the process in which rods and cones convert light energy into electrical impulses. This is necessary so that it can be sent along the optic nerve. |
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Transmission |
Transmission involves sending information in the form of electrical impulses along the optic nerve to the brain. |
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Organisation |
Organisation in Visual Perception involes assembling or arranging the features of a visual image in a meaningful way. How we actually go about organising visual information partly involves the use of visual perception principles. |
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Interpretation |
Interpretation is the process of giving meaning to visual information so that we can understand what we are looking at. |
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Difference between Organisation and Interpretation? |
Organisation assists our interpretation of objects and events, but it does not always explain how we actually ‘make sense’ of visual information. |
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Visual Perception Principles |
Visual Perception Principles are 'rules' that we apply to visual information that assists in organising and interpreting the information in meaningful ways. These principles can be broken into three categories; Gestalt Principles, Depth Principles and Perceptual Constancies. |
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Gestalt Principles |
Gestalt principles refer to the way in which we organise the features of a visual scene by grouping them to perceive a whole, complete form. |
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The Gestalt Principles (What are they?) |
- Figure Ground - Similarity - Proximity - Closure |
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Figure Ground |
When we use figure–ground, we organise visual information by perceptually dividing a visual scene into a ‘figure’. The line of seperation between the figure and the ground is known as the contour. |
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Closure |
Closure refers to the perceptual tendency to mentally ‘close up’, fill in or ignore gaps in a visual image and to perceive objects as a whole. |
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Similarity |
The principle of similarity involves the tendency to perceive parts of a visual image that have similar features — such as size, shape, texture or colour as being whole. |
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Proximity |
The principle of proximity is the tendency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group. |
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Depth Perception |
Depth perception is the ability to accurately estimate the distance of objects and therefore perceive the world in three dimensions. |
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Depth Cues |
Depth cues are sources of information from the environment (external cues) or from within our body (internal cues) that help us to perceive how far away objects are and therefore to perceive depth. |
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Binocular Depth Cues |
Binocular Depth Cues require the use of both eyes to be working together in order to provide information to the brain about depth and distance. There are only two; Convergence and Retinal Disparity. |
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Convergence |
Convergence involves the brain detecting and interpreting depth from changes in tension of the eye muscles that occur when two eye muscles turn towards each other to focus on objects that are close. Greater tension = when object gets closer. Less tension = When object is further away. |
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Retinal Disparity |
Since our eyes are 6 - 7 cms apart, each retina casts a slighty different image comparted to the other. Retinal Disparity refers to this and it enables us to make judgements about the depth or distance of an object. |
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Monocular Depth Cues |
Monocular Depth Cues require the use of only one eye to provide cues about the depth and distance. |
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Types of Monocular Depth Cues (The different cues) |
- Linear Perspective - Accomodation - Height in the Visual Field - Interposition - Texture Gradient - Relative Size |
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Accommodation |
Accommodation involves the automatic adjustment of the shape of the lens to focus an object in response to changes in how far away it is. |
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Pictorial Cues |
Pictorial Cues are named so because artists use them to create depth and distance on two dimensional surfaces. The five pictorial cues are - Linear Perspective - Height in the Visual Field - Interposition - Texture Gradient - Relative Size |
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Linear Perspective |
Linear Perspective is the apparent convergence or 'joining' of two parallel lines as they recede into the distance. |
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Interposition |
Interposition occurs when one object partially blocks or covers the other and the partially blocked object is perceived as being further away. |
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Texture Gradient |
Texture Gradient refers to the gradual reduction of detail that occurs in a surface as it recedes into the distance, compared to a surface that is close and perceived in fine detail. |
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Relative Size |
Relative Size refers to the tendency to perceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer. However we take into account what we know about the objects and use our past experience to judge the size. |
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Height in the Visual Field |
Height in the visual field refers to the location of objects in our field of vision whereby objects that are located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant to objects that are closer to where you are looking from. |
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Perceptual Constancies |
Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable and unchanging despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on the retina. Three perceptual constancies involve size, shape and brightness. |
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Size Constancy |
Size constancy involves recognising that an object’s actual size remains the same, even though the size of the image it casts on each retina changes. |
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Shape Constancy |
Shape constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite any change in shape of the image of the object on the retina. |
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Brightness Constancy |
Brightness constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from the object to the retina. |
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Perceptual Set |
Perceptual Set is the predisposition to perceive something with what we expect it to be. |
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Context |
In Visual Perception, context refers to the setting or environment in which a perception is made. |
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Motivation |
Motivation refers to processes within us to activate behaviour that we direct towards achieveing a particular goal. For example when we see what we want to see rather than what is actually there. |
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Emotional State |
Our emotional state, can also influence the way in which we perceive visual information. For example, a child who is afraid of being in their darkened bedroom may interpret the shadow of their dressing gown hanging on the back of the bedroom door as a ghost, or the teddy bear sitting on the end of the bed as a monster. |
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Past Experience |
Past Experience refers to our personal experiences throughout our whole life. Our unique combination of past experiences can lead to many individual differences in perception. |
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Culture |
Culture refers to the way of life of a particular community or group that sets it apart from other communities or groups. Experience with or in a particular culture can influence the way in which we process and interpret visual information. |
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Visual Illusion |
A visual illusion is a misinterpretation (distortion or mistake) of real sensory information. |
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Muller Lyer Illusion |
The Muller Lyer Illusion is a visual illusion in which one of two lines of equal length, each of which has opposite shaped ends, is incorrectly perceived of as being longer than the other. |
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Lifespan Development |
Age related changes that occur from birth, throughout a persons life and into old age. |
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Developmental Change |
A relatively permanent or long lasting change throughout our lifetime. |
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Age Range of Infancy |
Birth to Two Years |
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Age Range of Childhood |
Two to Ten Years |
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Adolescence |
Ten to Twenty Years |
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Early Adulthood |
Twenty to Fourty Years |
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Middle Age |
Fourty to Sixty-Five Years |
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Old Age |
Sixty-Five and beyond |
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Infancy |
Many psychological factors are developing at this stage; perceptual abilities, use of language, ways of thinking etc. The bond between infant and caregiver is important as it sets the foundation for the infants emotional development. |
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Childhood |
Children start becoming more independent. Apart from basic education skills, much time is spent in play and learning social skills. Cognitive skills also develop and an understanding of what is right and wrong. |
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Adolescence |
Puberty occurs at this stage, which brings on many physical and psychological changes. Adolescence is dominated by seeking independence and creating their own identity. Peer pressure and the influence of friends become more important. Thought processes are also more complex, logical and idealistic. |
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Early Adulthood |
Stage of establishing personal and financial independence and establishing a career. Also a stage where adults select a partner, develop relationships or start a family. |
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Middle Age |
Middle Age is a period of expanding social and personal involvements and responsibilities, advancing a career, and supporting offspring in their development. |
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Older Age |
Retirement, Decreasing strength and stamina, declining health, death of relatives and friends. Often a liberating time for people in their older ages as they have less committments. |
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Physical Development |
Involves changes in the body, and its various systems, such as development and nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills. |
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Social Development |
Involves changes in an individual's relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others such as the ability to form and maintain close relationships. |
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Cognitive Development |
Involves changes in an individuals mental abilities, such as processing of information through perception, learning and moral reasoning. |
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Emotional Development |
Involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these are expressed, interpreted and dealth with. |
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Quantitative Changes |
Quantitative Changes are variations in the quantity, or 'amount' of a thought, feeling or behaviour. These changes are usually expressed as numbers. |
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Qualitative Changes |
Qualitative Changes are those that vary in 'quality', 'kind' or 'type'. They are changes that make the individual different from the way they were before. |
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Heredity |
Heredity involves the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring at time of conception. |
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Environment |
In Psychology, the term environment is used to refer to all the experiences, objects and events to which we are exposed to throughout our lifetime. |
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Maturation |
Maturation refers to the orderly and sequential developmental changes that occur in the nervous system as well as other bodily structures controlled by our genes. |
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Psychological Development |
Made up of Social Development, Emotional Development and Cognitive Development. |
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Principle of Readiness |
The principle of readiness states that unless the necessary bodily structures are sufficiently mature, then no amount of practice will produce the particular behaviour. |
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Sensitive Period |
A sensitive period is a sensitive period of time when an individual is more sensitive to certain influences from their environment. |
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Longitudinal Study |
A longitudinal study is a long term investigation that studies that same group of people for an extended period of time. |
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Cross Sectional Study |
The cross sectional study selects and compares groups of participants of different ages over a short period of time. |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies |
Adv. - Useful way of examining consistencies in behaviour over time - Because they use the same participants, they allow psychologists to to study ways in which early development may affect later development.
Disadv. - Expensive - Hard to keep track of same participants around the world - Participants my lose interest in study |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross Sectional Studies |
Adv. - Inexpensive - Not too consuming - Easy to undertake
Disadv. - Other factors may affect the differences in age groups - Generational Influence |
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Theory |
In psychology, a theory is a set of organised ideas, proposed to describe and/or explain one or more aspects of behaviour and mental processes. |
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Piaget's Four Stage Theory |
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget's best known theory of cognitive development proposes that we move through four distinct stages from birth to adulthood. |
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Sensorimotor Stage |
The sensorimotor stage (0 - 2) is a stage where infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor abilities. |
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Key Accomplishments in Sensorimotor Stage |
Object Permanence |
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Object Permanence |
Object Permanence refers to the understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen or touched. |
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Preoperational Stage |
As children progress through the preoperational stage, children become increasingly able to represent internal events (think about and imagine things in their mind). |
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Key Accomplishments in Preoperational Stage |
Egocentrism Animism Transformation Centration Reversibility |
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Egocentrism |
Having difficulty in seeing or being unable to see things from another person's point of view. |
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Animism |
Animism is a belief that everything that exists has some kind of conciousness or awareness. |
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Transformation |
Understanding that something can change from one state (form or structure) to another. |
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Centration |
A child in the pre operational stage can only focus on one quality or feature of an object at a time. |
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Reversibility |
The ability to follow a line of reasoning back to its starting point. |
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Concrete Operational Stage |
The concrete operational stage (7 - 12) is where the thinking of concrete operational children revolves around what they know and what they can experience through their senses. |
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Key Accomplishments in Concrete Operational Stage |
Conservation (Volume, Number, Mass and Length) Classification |
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Conservation |
Conservation refers to the idea that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area when the object changes its shape or appearance. |
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Classification |
Classification is the ability to organise information into categories based on common features that sets them apart from other classes or groups. |
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Formal Operational Stage |
The formal operational stage (12+) is where more complex thought processes are evident and thinking becomes increasingly sophiscticated. |
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Key Accomplishments in Formal Operational Stage |
Abstract Thinking Logical Thinking |
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Abstract Thinking |
Abstract Thinking is a way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see or visualise in order to understand concepts. For example; What is honesty? Also develop their beliefs and ideas. |
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Logical Thinking |
Logical Thinking involves individuals developing their own strategies to solve problems, develop hypotheses and test solutions. |
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Criticisms of Piaget's Theory |
- The key cognitive accomplishments described by Piaget for the different stages are often achieved by children younger than the proposed age range by Piaget.
- Small number of participants Piaget used in his experiments and he used to experiment on his own children. |
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Moral Dilemma |
A moral dilemma is a social problem that which has two or more solutions, each of which is 'wrong' in some way. |
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Moral Behaviour |
Moral Behaviour is behaviour that is considered proper or ethical according to society or culture. |
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Moral Development |
Moral Development involves the gradual development of an individual's concept of right and wrong. |
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Preconventional Level (Kohlberg Theory) |
At the preconventional level (0 - 9) children have little awareness of moral behaviour which is socially or culturally acceptable. They see rules as something they have to follow, because other people tell them to. At the preconventional level, what is right usually depends on if they can get away with it or if it's personally satisfying. |
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Stages in Preconventional Level |
- Obedience and Punishment Orientation - Naively Egotistical Orientation |
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Obedience and Punishment Orientation |
In this stage, children follow rules to avoid punishment. Their behaviour is largely based on fear rather than thinking it its right or wrong. |
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Naively Egotistical Orientation |
In this stage, children start to do things to please others because they think they will be rewarded for doing the right thing |
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Conventional Level (Kohlberg Theory) |
People who develop moral reasoning at the conventional level are considerate of the thoughts and feelings of others, have adopted many moral values and seek to obey the rules set out by others. |
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Stages in Conventional Level |
- Good boy/Nice Girl Orientation - Law and Social Order Maintaining Orientation |
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Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation |
Individuals in this stage obey rules to get praise from others or approval from people who are important to them. However unlike people in Stage 1, individuals in Stage 3 abide by rules or to gain social acceptance whereas in Stage 1, individuals follow rules because they fear the consequences. |
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Law and Order Social Maintaining Orientation |
Individuals in this stage shift their focus to social institutions such as the law, school or church. They seek to avoid criticism from police, teachers or priests and are law abiding citizens. |
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Postconventional Level |
The postconventional level (16+) involves an individual where their decision to do what is morally 'right' is guided by their conscience. |
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Legalistic-Social-Contract Orientation |
Individuals in this stage, choose moral principles to guide their behaviour, being careful not to interfere with the rights of others. |
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Universal-Ethical Orientation |
This stage, the most advanced stage of moral reasoning, is where the individual knows that what is moral is not simply what the majority of people want to do. They want laws that are best for everyone, regardless of whether society agrees. |
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Criticisms of Kohberg's Theory |
- Doesn't accurately describe the moral development of women as his data was mainly collected from male participants.
- His method of data collection which involved questioning children was criticised as maybe sometimes the children didn't understand what Kohlberg was asking them.
- There are also cultural differences in moral development as some cultures possess various views on what is right and wrong |
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What is mental health? |
Mental Health is when a person has effective psychological functioning, is not distressed, is able to cope with everyday life and has thoughts, feelings and behaviours that is typical of them and normal for the society or culture they belong in. |
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What is a mental health problem? |
A mental health problem is when the difficulties faced by an individual is mild, short term and able to be treated within a relatively short period of time. |
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What is the difference between a mental health problem and a mental illness? |
A mental health problem is when the difficulties experienced by a person are mild, temporary and able to be treated within a relatively short period of time, while a mental illness is more serious and likely to persist for a relatively long period of time. |
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What is a mental illness? |
A mental illness is often described as psychological dysfunction, usually involving distress, impaired ability to cope with everyday life, and thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour that are not typical of the person and may also be inappropriate in their culture or society. |
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What is psychological dysfunction? |
A breakdown in cognitive, emotional and/or behavioural 'functioning' during which a person's thoughts, feelings and behaviour from that would usually occur or be expected of that individual. |
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What is distress? (Characteristic of Mental Illness) |
When a person is distressed, they are extremely upset. People experience distress in their everyday life, however, it is also often present when people experience mental illness. |
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What is impaired functioning? (Characteristic of Mental Illness) |
Inability to cope with everyday life. People can also experience this as part of their everyday life, however, it is also often present when people experience mental illness. |
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What is atypical? (Characteristic of Mental Illness) |
Atypical behaviour is when a person responds in a way(s) that is not normal for them. |
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Society and/or Culture? (Characteristic of Mental Illness) |
Each culture/society has its own set of norms about what is considered normal and abnormal behaviour. |
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What is a psychotic illness? |
A mental illness or didorder that involves loss of contact with reality |
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What are delusions? |
Delusions are false beliefs that do not match reality. |
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What are hallucinations? |
Hallucinations are when the person may hear, see, smell, taste or feel things that are not actually present. |
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What is a non-psychotic illness? |
A non-psychotic illness is when the individual remains in touch with reality despite their dysfunctional thoughts, feelings and behaviour. |
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Incidence of mental illness |
Between the ages of 16 - 85, 45% stated they had suffered from a mental illness. Out of this 45%, 20% of them indicated they had suffered in the past 12 months.
The most common age group that mental illnesses affect are 16 - 24. |
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Most prevalent types of mental illnesses |
The most prevalent types of mental illnesses are non psychotic illnesses. Out of these non psychotic illnesses, anxiety disorder is the most prevalent followed by substance abuse disorder and depression. |
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Gender Differences (Mental Illness) |
Males and females experience similar rates of mental illness. However there is a gender difference in the types of mental illnesses experienced. Males experience abuse substance abuse disorders more than females. Whereas females report experiencing anxiety related disorders and depression more than males. |
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DSM - 5 (What it stands for and what it is) |
The DSM 5 stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and it's a diagnostic manual used by many psychologists and psychiatrists around the world to help them classify and diagnose mental illnesses. |
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DSM - 5 (What info it provides) |
Symptoms associated with the disorder
Typical course of each disorder
The age at which people are likely to develop the disorder
Degree of impairment
Prevalence of disorder
Whether disorder is likely to affect others in family
Relationship of the disorder to gender, age and culture |
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Labelling (What it is) |
Labelling is the process of classifying and naming a mental illness following a diagnosis. |
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Labelling (Advantages) |
Helps clinical psychologists recognise and describe a mental illness.
Assists in identifying appropriate treatment, therapy and support
Ensures common understanding amoung mental health professionals
Assists communication |
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Labelling (Disadvantages) |
Can influence how the person thinks about themselves
Can influence the way in which they are viewed by others in the community
Creates misunderstandings about behaviour
Labels stick with them for life |
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Rosenhan Study |
The Rosenhan study included D.L. Rosenhan sending eight of his colleagues to mental hospitals saying they kept hearing voices in their heads saying the word 'thud'. These people were admitted and diagnosed with schizophrenia. Rosenhan had instructed them to act normal after being diagnosed and not to show any more symptoms. These pseudo patients were held from the range of 7 - 52 as days as being schizophrenia patients. The fake patients weren't identified as fake and when they were released, Rosenhan published the study highlighting the labelling system wasn't working. |
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ADHD - What it is |
ADHD is characterised by inattention and hyperactive behaviour at home, school and social settings, to a degree that is inappropriate for the person's age and development. |
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ADHD - Symptoms |
Inattention
Hyperactivity
Impulsivity |
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ADHD - Incidence |
About 7% of Australian children have ADHD.
Another estimate based on medicine prescribed is that 2.3% to 20% in school aged children and adolescents. 90% of children diagnosed with ADHD are boys. |
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ADHD - Treatment |
Medication
Behavioural Therapies |
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Cognitive Behavioural Therapy |
CBT is a therapy process that involves changing the way a person thinks about an event or situation in order to alter their feelings and behaviour. |
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Anxiety Disorder - What it is |
A mental disorder characterised by persistent feelings of tension, distress, nervousness and apprehension or fear about the future |
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Anxiety Disorder - Symptoms |
Tension
Distress
Nervousness
Fear about the future |
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Anxiety Disorder - Incidence |
Around 14.4% of Australians aged 16 - 85 have experienced an anxiety disorder. Females also experience more anxiety disorders as 32% of females admitted they had experienced an anxiety disorder whereas 20% of males did. |
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Anxiety Disorder - Treatment |
CBT and other Behaviour Therapies
Anti Anxiety Medications |
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Schizophrenia - What it is |
Is a psychotic mental disorder characterised by distorted perceptions, bizarre thoughts, disorganised speech, disturbed emotions and impaired functioning in everyday life. |
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Types of Schizophrenia |
Residual
Paranoid
Catatonic
Undifferentiated
Disorganised |
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Schizophrenia - Influence of Genetics |
Identical twins have a risk of about 50% of developing schizophrenia if one twin does. If one parent has schizophrenia, there is about a 12% chance of their children developing it aswell. |
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Schizophrenia - Symptoms |
Distorted Perceptions
Bizarre Thoughts
Disorganised Speech
Disturbed Emotions |
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Schizophrenia - Incidence |
People first experience symptoms at around 16 or 17.
Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the Australian population. It is experienced in males and females equally but the symptoms are usually earlier for males. |
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Schizophrenia - Treatment |
Medication - Anti psychotics
Therapy - CBT
Social Support |
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Autism - What it is |
Autism is a disorder characterised by extreme unresponsiveness to others, poor communication skills and highly repetitive, routine type behaviours. |
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Autism - Symptoms |
Impaired Social Interaction
Impaired Communication
Restricted, repetitive behaviour
Impaired intellectual functioning |
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Autism - Treatment |
Behaviour modification - Involves constantly rewarding the child whenever they behave in an appropriate way until they learn this way of behaving. |
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Dementia - What it is |
Dementia is a general term for a group of illnesses or brain related diseases involving progressive deterioration of mental functioning. |
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Dementia - Symptoms |
Become increasingly forgetful
Become suddenly disorientated
Disorganised Speech
Memory Loss |
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Dementia - Treatment |
Medication
Cognitive Remediation |
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Phobia - What is it |
A phobia is an excessive, persistent and unreasonable fear of a specific object, activity or situation. |
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Phobia - Symptoms |
Dizziness
Breathlessness
Nausea
Fear of dying |
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Phobia - Treatment |
Therapies such as flooding which includes prolonged exposure to the phobia that the person experiences which subsequently makes the person feel safer and comfortable to in relation to their phobia. |
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Eating Disorder - What it is |
An eating disorder is a general term used to describe a mental disorder or illness involving a severe disturbance in eating behaviour. |
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Eating Disorder - Types |
The two main types of Eating Disorders include
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the persistent refusal to maintain body weight at or above a normal level, intense fear of weight gain, a distorted perception of body image and extreme concern with body shape and weight.
Bulimia Nervosa is characterised by binge eating episodes followed by compensatory behaviour. |
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Eating Disorder - Treatment |
Loss of weight
Distorted Thinking
Loss of Menstruation
Medical Problems |
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Three Main Functions of Nervous Systems |
- Receive Information - Process Information - Respond to Information |
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Receptor Cells |
Specialised nerve cells located within sense organs such as the eyes, ears and the skin. |
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Two Main Divisions of Nervous System |
- CNS (Central Nervous System) - PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) |
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How are the CNS and the PNS interrelated? |
The CNS processes, interprets and stores incoming info from the PNS. The PNS consists of all parts of the Nervous System other than the brain and spinal cord. The PNS carries informations to the CNS and back from the CNS to the parts of the body. |
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Central Nervous System |
The CNS is the network of nerves and neurons that make up the brain and psinal cord. Its main role is to process information provided by the sensory systems and other parts of the body and to activate appropriate actions. |
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Brain |
The brain is an intricate network of nerve tissues (clusters of neurons) that plays a vital role in processing information received through nerve pathways from the body and in directing actions within the body. Often called the master organ. |
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Spinal Cord |
The Spinal Cord is a long column of nerve tissue that extends from the base of the brain and is encased in the spinal column. The spinal cord links the brain and the parts of the body below the neck. |
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Two Main Functions of the CNS |
- To pass sensory information from the PNS to the brain - To pass motor information from the brain to the PNS |
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Spinal Reflex |
A spinal reflex is an automaticall occurring response to a stimulus without the info initally being processed by the brain. The nerves in the spinal cord initiate a response without the brain having to first. |
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Peripheral Nervous System |
The peripheral nervous system is the entire network of nerves that transmits information to and from the CNS. The PNS includes all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. |
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Two Divisions of the PNS |
- Somatic Nervous System - Autonomic Nervous System |
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Somatic Nervous System |
The SNS is a network of sensory nerves that carry information received at sensory receptor sites to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the muscles that control movements of the body. Also called Skeletal Nervous System |
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Autonomic Nervous System |
The ANS is a network of nerves that carries messages between the CNS and the heart, lungs and other internal organs and glands. The ANS regulates, or controls, the functioning of internal organs automatically. |
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Two divisions of the ANS |
- Sympathetic Nervous System - Parasympathetic Nervous System |
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Sympathetic Nervous System |
The SNS arous the body when we experience and extreme emotion or feel threatened. |
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Parasympathetic Nervous System |
The PSNS calms or restores the body to the normal state of functioning after an extreme threat has passed. |
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Neuron |
A neuron is an individual nerve cell that transmits information within the body, combining it with information from other sources. Neurons have specialised functions, some neurons specialise in transmitting information from sense organs to the CNS. Other neruons do the opposite. Some neurons carry information between neurons. |
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Number of Neurons in the Body |
Between 100 and 150 billion neurons. |
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Soma |
The soma or cell body is the structure that determines whether the nueron will be activated and thus transmit messages to other neurons. Within the soma is the nucleus. |
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Nucleus |
The nucleus contains biochemical information that provides the energy to keep the neuron functioning. |
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Dendrite |
A dendrite is a short, thin nerve fibre that is specialised to detect and receive neural information. Like an antenna, dendrites receive incoming info from other neurons and transmit this to the soma. |
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Axon |
An axon is a single, tubelike, fluid filled extnesion that transmits messages from the soma to the other cells in the body including other neurons, muscles and glands. Most neurons only have one axon. |
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Axon Terminal |
At the end of each axon are branches called axon terminals. Each axon terminal has a small knob like swelling at the tip of it called a synaptic button. Axon terminals are located close to the dendrites of other neurons. |
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Synaptic Button |
The synaptic button is a small structure like a sac that stores chemicals called neurotransmitters. |
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Myelin Sheath |
The axons of many neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is a white, fatty covering that helps insulate the axon from axons of other neurons. Without it, interference may occur. However it is not a continious coating along the full length of the axon. It occures is segments that are seperated by small gaps called nodes. Neurons wrapped in myelin communicate their messages 20 times faster than unmyelinated neurons. |
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Sensory Neurons |
Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) are specialised cells that receive information from both the external and internal environemtn. They transmit this info to the CNS. There are different types of sensory neurons, each of which only respond to a particluar type of stimulation. |
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Motor Neurons |
Motor Neurons (efferent) transmit messages from the CNS to the muscles, glands and organs. They enable muscles to move, cause glands to secrete and actvate internal organs. |
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Interneurons |
Interneurons provide neural links between sensory and motor neurons and have a specialised role of carrying and intergrating messages between sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons only exist in the CNS. |
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Role of Interneurons |
When information arrives at the CNS, an interneuron receives, organises and intergrates the information. |
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Neural Impulse (Nervous System) |
A neural impulse is a combination of electrical and chemical energy that contain the neural information which travels along the axon. |
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How a Neuron sends information along the axon |
Information moves through the axon like a mexican wave. Sections open up, which then triggers the next one to open up and so on. Neurons are surrounded by a membrane, between the neuron and membrane there are ions which are either positively or negatively charged. This difference in the charges results in an electrical charge across the cell membrane. |
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Resting Potential |
The difference in the electrical charge inside and outside the neuron. |
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Threshold |
The minimum level of stimulation in order to be activate a neuron is called the neuron's threshold. |
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Speed of Neural Impulses |
Fastest impulse can travel at 430km/h Slowest travels at around 3.5km/h |
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Synaptic Gaps |
The synaptic gap is a gap which seperates each neuron from another neuron. |
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Synpase |
The synapse is the point of communication between neurons. The synpase includes the synaptic gap and a small area of the membrane of each of the connecting neurons. |
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Neurotransmitter |
A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance thatis made by the neuron and enables communication between neurons. The neurotransmitter works by binding itself to the receptor site on the receiving neuron. |
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Excitatory Effect |
One of the two effects a neurotransmitter will have on the neuron it has binded itself to. This effect consequently activates a neural impulse in another neuron. |
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Inhibitory Effect |
The other affect a neurotransmitter will have on another neuron. The inhibitory effect blocks or prevents the receiving neuron from firing. |
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Neuromodulators |
Neuromodulators are chemical substances that influence the activity of neurotransmitters. Instead of communicating information like a neurotransmitter, neuromodulators make neurons more or less receptive to a neuromodulator. |
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Agonists (Neuromodulators) |
Agonists imitate and stimulate a neurotransmitters activity |
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Antagonists (Neuromodulators) |
Antagonists block a neurotransmitters activity. |
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Similarities of Neuromodulators and Neurotransmitters |
Neuromodulators and neurotransmitters can be simulataneously released from the same synaptic button. Certain neurotransmitters act as neurotransmitters in specific parts of the brain and neuromodulators in other parts of the brain. |
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Differences of Neuromodulators and Neurotransmitters |
Neuromodulators' effects have a slow acting effect but continue for a substantial amount of time. Neuromodulators can also affect larger areas of neurons, well away from the point of release. |
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Parkinson's Disease |
Parkinsons disease is a disorder in which neurons at the base of the brain degenerate and gradually cease to function normally. These neurons located in the substantia nigra (responsible for complex movements) produce the neurotransmitter called dopamine. In Parkinson's disease, the amount of dopamine is markedly reduced. |
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How can too little of a neurotransmitter interfere with the Nervous System? |
Too little quantities of a specific neurotransmitter can cause problems. As the specific neurotransmitter isn't in adequate levels, the brain tries to overcome this and can deteriorate other parts of the body. |
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How can too much of a neurotransmitter interfere with the Nervous System? |
When there is too much of a neurotransmitter present, it can become excitotoxic; overactive and overstimulating. When certain neurotransmitters are in excessive quantities, it can damage bodily structures and can cause nerve damage in the body. |
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Three Main Approaches to Research (Nervous System) |
Psychological Intervention Somatic Intervention Correlation |
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Somatic Intervention |
In somatic intervention, the researcher changes some aspect of the structure or function of the nervous system to see how this change affects behaviour and/or mental processes. |
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ESB (Electrical Stimulation of the Brain) |
ESB involves using an electrode to electrically stimulate or inhibit the activity of one or more neurons in a part of the brain. |
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Psychological Intervention |
In psychological intervention, the researcher interferes with or changes a behaviour or mental process of a person in some way and measures the resultant changes in the structure of function of the nervous system. |
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Two Neuroimaging Techniques |
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
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What PET and fMRI do? |
These scanners can detect, record and measure brain activity, and they also enable production of computer generated images for researchers to visually see what has been scanned. |
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Electroencephalograph (EEG) |
EEG is an electronic device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity that spontaneously and 'naturally' occurs in the human brain. |
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Correlation |
Correlation involves conducting a correlational study to find out the extent to which some aspect of the nervous system is 'co-related' or varies, with some behaviour or mental process. |
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How a correlational study is different from an experiment? |
A correlational studdy does not establish a cause-effect relationship between variables of research interest. |
