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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory
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The ability to store and retrieve information over time
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Encoding
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The process by which we transform what we percieve, think, or feel into an enduring memory
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Storage
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The process of maintaining information in memory over time
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Retrieval
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The provess of bringing to ming information that has been previously encoded and stored
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Semantic Judgments
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A way of encoding that requires people to think about the meaning of words (usually most effective)
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Rhyme Judgments
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A way of encoding that requires people to think about the sound of words
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Visual Judgments
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A way of encoding that requires people to think about the appearance of words (least effective)
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Elaborative Encoding
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Actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory (temporal and frontal lobes)
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Visual Imagery Encoding
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Storing new information by converting it into mental pictures (does the same thing as elaborative encoding but also gives the brain two placeholders for information - visual and verbal)
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Organizational Encoding
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Categorizing information by noticing the relationships among a series of items
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Memory Storage
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The process of maintaining information in memory over time
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Sensory Memory Store
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The place in which sensory information is kept for a few seconds or less
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Iconic Memory
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A fast-decaying store of visual information (applies to the sensory memory store and lasts for less than a second)
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Echonic Memory
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A fast-decaying store of auditory information (applies to the sensory memory store and lasts for up to five seconds)
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Short-Term Memory
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A place where nonsensory information is kept for more than a few seconds but less than a minute (15-20 seconds without rehearsal and is limited to seven meaningful items)
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Rehearsal
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The process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it
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Chunking
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Combining small pieces of information into larger cluster or chunks to remember more meaningful items in short-term memory
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Working Memory
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Active maintenance of information in short-term storage
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Long-Term Memory Store
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A place in which information can be kept for hours, days, weeks, or years (no know capacity limit)
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Anterograde Amnesia
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The inability to transfer new information from the short-term memory store to the long-term memory store
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Retrograde Amnesia
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The inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation
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Brain Structure that Produces Memory
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The Hippocampal region serves as an index that links all of our bits of memories together from different parts of the brain
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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
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Enhanced neural processing that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections
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NMDA Receptor
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Influences the flow of information from one neuron to another across the synapse by controlling the initiation of LTP in most hippocampal pathways (hippocampus contains more of these receptors and thus more memories)
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Retrieval Cue
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External Information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind
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Encoding Specificity Principle
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A Retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps to recreate the specific way in which information was initially encoded
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State-dependent Retrieval
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The tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
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Transfer-Appropriate Processing
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Memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process information in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later
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Explicit Memory
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Occurs when people consciously or intentially retrieve past experiences
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Implicit Memory
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Occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them
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Procedural Memory
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The gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice (or "knowing how" to do something)
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Priming
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An Enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus (results in reduced activity in the cortex)
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Semantic Memory
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A network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
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Episodic Memory
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The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
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Transience
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Forgetting what occurs over time (storage phase)
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Ebbinghaus's Curve
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Demonstrates that memories don't fade at a consistent rate as time passes, including that most forgetting occurs in the first hour
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Retroactive Interference
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Later learning impairs memory for information aquired earlier
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Proactive Interference
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Earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
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Absentmindedness
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A lapse in attention that results in memory failure (lack of attention during encoding phase)
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Prospective Memory
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Remembering to do things in the future (or remembering to remember)
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Blocking
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A failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
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Tip-of-the-Tongue Experience
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The temporary inability to retrieve information that is stored in memory, accompanied by the feeling that you are on the verge of recovering the information
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Memory Misattribution
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Assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source
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Source Memory
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Recal of when, where, and how information was acquired
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False Recognition
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A feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered yet
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Suggestibility
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The tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections (especially swayed by imagery)
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Bias
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The distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences
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Consistency Bias
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Altering the past to fit the present
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Change Bias
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Exaggerating differences between past and present events
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Egocentric Bias
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Distorting the past to make us look better
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Persistence
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The intrusive recollection of event that we wish we could forget, especially after disturbing or traumatic events (amygdala plays a leading role in these emotional memories)
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Flashbulb Memories
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Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
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Language
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A system for communicating with others using signals that convey meaning and are combined according to the rules of grammar
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Phoneme
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The smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech rather than as random noise (there are about 40 in the English language)
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Phonological Rules
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Indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds
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Morphemes
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The smallest meaningful units of language
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Grammar
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A set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
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Morphological Rules
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Indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words
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Content Morphemes
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Refer to things and events
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Function Morphemes
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Serve grammatical funtions
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Syntactical Rules
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Indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences
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Deep Structure
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The meaning of a sentence (if changed means something different)
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Surface Structure
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How a sentence is worded (can be changed and mean the same thing)
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Fast Mapping
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The fact that children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure, enabling them to learn at a rapid pace and learn an incredible number of words
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Telegraphic Speech
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Speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words (children tend to speak this way when they are about 2 years old
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Overgeneralizing
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The fact that as children learn grammatical rules for a language, they tend to overgeneralize some rules and their speech is suddenly ungrammatical
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Nativist Theory
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Language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity (furthered by Chomsky)
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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
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A collection of processes that facilitate language learning
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Genetic Dysphasia
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A syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence (supports nativist theory)
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Interactionist Theory
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Although infants are born with an innate ability to acquire language, social interactions play a crucial role in language
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Aphasia
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Difficulty in producing or comprehending language (if Broca's area is affected production is hard, if Wernicke's area is affect comprehension is hard)
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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
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Maintains that language shapes the nature of thought (Championed by Whorf)
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Concept
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A mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli
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Category-Specific Deficit
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An inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category while leaving the ability to recognize objects ourside the category undisturbed (suggests that the brain is prewired to put things into categories and concepts)
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Family Resemblance Theory
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Members of a category have features that appear to be characteristic of other category members but may not be possessed by every member
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Prototype
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The Best of the most typical member within a category
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Exemplar Theory
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Holds that we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category
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Accuracy of Decisions
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We excell at decisions that require estimating frequency but we are much less accurate when making decisions that involve probabilities
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Rational Choice Theory
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We make decisions by determining how likely someting is to happen, judging that value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two
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Availability Bias
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Items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occured more frequently
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Heuristics
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Fast and efficient strategies that may facilitate decision making but do not guarantee that a solution will be reached
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Algorithm
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A well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantess a solution to a problem
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Conjunction Fallacy
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People think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Making a probability judgment by comparing an object or even to a prototype of the object or event
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Framing Effects
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Occur when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed)
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Sunk-Cost Fallacy
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People make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation
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Prospect Theory
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People choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains (people are more willing to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains)
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Certainty Effect
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Suugests that when making decisions people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing
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Frequency Format Hypothesis
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Our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur
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Ill-Defined Problem
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A problem that does not have a clear goal or well-defined solution (most common)
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Well-Defined Problem
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A problem that has specified goals and clearly defined solution paths
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Means-End Analysis
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A process of searching for the means or steps to reduce the differences between the current situation and the desired goal (analyze goal, analyze state, list differences, and finally reduce the list)
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Analogical Problem Solving
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Solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem
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Insight
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Sudden insightful solutions are actually the result of unconcious incremental processes
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Functional Fixedness
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The tendency to percieve the functions of objects as fixed, which constricts our thinking
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Reasoning
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A mental activity that consists of organizing information or beliefs into a series of steps to reach conclusions (different than logic, which is a system of rules that specify which conclusions follow from a set of statements)
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Practical Reasoning
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Figuring out what to do, or reasoning directed toward action
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Theoretical Reasoning
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Reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief (harder to do)
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Belief Bias
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People's judgments about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid
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Syllogistic Reasoning
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We assess whether a conclusion follows from two statements that we assume to be true
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Multidimensional Scaling
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A technique for mapping and classifying emotions in which people rate the similarity of dozens of emotional experiences (these emotions differ on two scales of valence and arousal)
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Emotion
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A positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity
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James-Lange Theory
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Stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain (body responds to a situation and then you experience an emotion based on you physiological response)
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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A stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the autonomic nervous system and emotion experience in the brain (people often react quicker emotionally than their bodies do and there are not enough unique body responses to reflect the complexity of emotion)
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Two-Factor Theory
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Emotions are inferences about the causes of undifferentiated physiological arousal (validated because people can misattribute arousal)
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The Brain and Emotion
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The limbic system plays a key part in emotion, and within that system the amygdala is crucial in the production of emotion
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Appraisal
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An evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus (appraisal is the primary job of the amygdala and it occurs very rapidly)
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Emotion Regulation
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The cognitvie and behavorial strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience
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Reappraisal
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Changing one's emotional experience by changing the meaning of the emotion-eliciting stimulus
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Emotional Expression
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An observable sign of an emotional state
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Affective Forecasting
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The process by which people predict their emotional reactions to future events (people are usually very wrong)
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Universiality Hypothesis
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Emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone across cultures
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
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Emotional Expressions can cause the emotional experiences to intensify
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Two Rules of Disgust
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Contagion (once two things have been in contact they will continue to share their properties) and Similarity (things that share appearances also share properties)
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Display Rules
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Norms for the Control of emotional expression (which include intensification, deintensification, masking, and neutralizing)
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Four features that can reveal when someone is lying
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Morphology (certain facial features resist conscious control), Symmetry (sincere espressions are more symmetrical), Duration (decieving expression last shorter and longer than real ones), and Temporal Patterning (sincere expressions appear and disappear smoothly)
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Motivation
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The purpose or the cause of an action
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Hedonic Principle
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The notion that all people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain
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Instinct
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Certain motivations that nature endows us with to strive toward
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Drive
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An internal state generated by departures from physiological optimality
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Homeostasis
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The tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular state
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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Some needs must be satisfied before others, with the strongest and most immediate needs coming first
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Orexigenic Signal
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A signal to tell your brain to switch hunger on (Ghrelin and lateral hypothalmus handle these signals)
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Anorexigenic Signal
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A signal to tell your brain to switch hunger off (Leptin and ventromedial hypothalmus handle these signals)
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Belumia Nervosa
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A disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
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Anorexia Nervosa
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A disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake due to a distorted body image
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Metabolism
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The rate at which energy is stored
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Human Sexual Response Cycle
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The stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity (excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution, and refractory phases)
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Extrinsic Motivation
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A motivation to take actions that lead to reward (reflects ability to delay gratification)
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Intrinsic Motivation
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A motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding
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Conscious Motivation
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A motivation of which one is aware
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Unconcious Motivation
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A motivation of which one is not aware
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Need for Achievement
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The motivation to solve worthwhile problems
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Approach Motivation
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A motivation to experience a positive outcome
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Avoidance Motivation
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A motivation not to experience a negative outcome (stronger than approach motivation)
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Personality
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An individual's characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling
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Explanations of Personality Differences
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Prior events and anticipated concerns shape personality
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Self-Report
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A series of answers to a questionaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior
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MMPI
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A well-researched, clinical questionaire used to assess personality and psychological problems
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Projective Techniques
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A standard series of ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit unique responses that reveal inner aspects of an individual's personality
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
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A projective presonality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret her or her personality
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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A projective personality test in which respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people
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Trait
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A relatively stable disposition to behave in a prticular and consistent way
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Factor Analysis
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Sorts trait terms into a small number of underlying dimensions based on how people use the traits to rate themselves
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The Big Five
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The traits of the five-factor model: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extroversion
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Social Role Theory
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Men and women have evolved different personality characteristics in part because their reproductive succes depends on different behaviors
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Reticular Formation
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Sensitivity in this part of the brain can explain the differences between extroverts and introverts
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Behavorial Activation System (BAS)
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Activates approach behavior in response to the anticipation of reward
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Behavorial Inhibitation System (BIS)
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Inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment
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Psychodynamic Approach
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Personality is formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness - motives that can produce emotional disorders
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Dynamic Unconscious
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An active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggle to control these forces
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Id
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The part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives
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Pleasure Principle
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The psychic force that motivatesd the tendency to seek immediate gratification of any impulse
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Ego
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The component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life's practical demands
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Reality Principle
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The regulating mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs and function effectively in the real world
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Superego
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The mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority
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Defense Mechanisms
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Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses
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Rationalization
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Supplying a reasonable-sounding explanation for unacceptable feelings and behavior to conceal one's underlying motives or feelings
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Reaction Formation
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Unconsciously replacing threatening inner wishes and fantasies with an exaggerated version of the opposite
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Projection
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Attributing one's own threatening feelings, motives, or impulses to another person or group
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Regression
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The ego deals with internal conflict and percieved threat by reverting to an immature behavior or earlier stage of development
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Displacement
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Shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative
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Identification
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Helps deal with feelings of threat and anxiety by enabling us unconsciously to take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or better able to cope
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Sublimation
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Channeling unacceptable sexual or agressive drives into socially acceptable and culturally enchancing activities
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Psychosexual Stages
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Distinct early life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasures
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Fixation
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When a person's pleasure-seeking drives become stuck, or arrested, at a particular psychosexual stage
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Oral Stage
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Experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed
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Anal Stage
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Pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces and urine, and toilet training
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Phallic Stage
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Pleasure, frustration, and conflict associated with the phallic-genital region as well as coping with powerful incestuous feelings of love, hate, jealousy, and conflict
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Oedipus Conflict
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A child's conflicting feelings toward the opposite-sex parent is resolved by identifying with the same-sex parent
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Latency Stage
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Primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills
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Genital Stage
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The time for the coming together of the mature adult personality with a capacity to love, work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner
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Self-Actualizing Tendency
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The human motive toward realizing our innner potential - the need to be good, to be fully alive, and to find meaning in life
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Unconditional Positive Regard
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An attitude of nonjudgmental acceptance toward another person
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Existential Approach
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Regards personality as governed by an individual's ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death
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Social Cognitive Approach
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Views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them
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Person-Situation Controversy
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The question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by the situational factors
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Personal Constructs
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Dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences
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Outcome Expectancies
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A person's assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior (want to move closer to our goals)
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Locus of Control
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A person's tendency to percieve the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment
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Self-Concept
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A person's explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics
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Self-Schemas
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The traits that people use to define themselves
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Self-Verification
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The tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept
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Self-Esteem
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The extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self
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Self-Serving Bias
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People tend to credit their successes but down-play responsibility for their failures
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Narcissism
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A graniose view of the self combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others
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Psychotherapy
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An interaction between a therapist and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem
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Eclectic Psychotherapy
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Drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem
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Psychodynamic Psychotherapies
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Explore childhood events and encourage individuals to use this understanding to develop insight into their psychological problems
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Resistance
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A reluctance to cooperate with treatment for fear of confronting unpleasant unconscious material (overcome with free association, dream analysis, and interpretation)
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Transference
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The analyst begins to assume a major significance in the client's life and the client reacts to the analyst based on unconscious childhood fanasies
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Interpersonal Psychotherapy
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A form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships
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Behavior Therapy
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Disordered behavior is learned and that symptom relief is achieved through changing overt maladaptive behaviors into more constructive ones
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Aversion Therapy
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Using positive punishment to reduce the frequency of an undesirable behavior
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Token Economy
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Giving clients tokens for desired behaviors that they can later trade for rewards (not that effective)
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Exposure Therapy
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Confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in the emotional response
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Systematic Desensitization
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A procedure in which a client relaxes all the muscles of her or his body while imagining being in increasingly frightening situations
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Cognitive Therapy
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Helping a client identify and correct any distorted thinking about self, others, or the world
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Cognitive Restructuring
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Teaching clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and postive beliefs
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Mindfulness Meditation
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Teaches an individual to be fully present in each moment; to be aware of thoughts, feelings, and sensations; and to detect symptoms before they become a problem
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Cognitive Behavorial Therapy (CBT)
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A Blend of Cognitive and behavorial theraputic strategies (problem focused, action oriented, structured, and transparent)
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Person-Centered Therapy
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Assumes that all individuals have a tendency toward growth and that this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist (nondirective, congruence, empathy, and unconditional positive regard)
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Gestalt Therapy
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Helping the client become more aware of his or her thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to take responsibility for them (focusing and empty chair technique)
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Group Therapy
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Multiple participants work on their individual problems in a group atmosphere (common problem, cheap)
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Antipsychotic Drugs
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Medications that are used to treat Schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders (usually Thorazine blocking dopamine and seratonin)
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Psychopharmacology
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The study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms
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Antianxiety Medications
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Drugs that help reduce a person's experience of fear or anxiety (facilitate GABA)
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Antidepressants
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A class of drugs that help lift a person's mood (MAOI's and SSRI's that block reuptake of serotonin)
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Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
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A treatment that involves inducing a mild seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain (depression and mania patients)
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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
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A treatment that involves placing a pwerful pulsed magnet over a person's scalp, which alters neural activity in the brain (depression)
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Phototherapy
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A therapy that invovles repeated exposure to bright light
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Psychosurgery
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The surgical destruction of specific brain areas (lobotomy)
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Treatment Allusions
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Natural improvement, nonspecific treatment effects, placebo effect, and errors in reconstructive memory
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Iatrogenic Illness
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A disorder or symptom that occurs as a result of a medical or psychotherapuetic treatment itself
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Aggression
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Behavior whose purpose is to hurt others (premeditated and impulsive)
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Frustration-Aggression Principle
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People aggress when their goals are thwarted
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Cooperation
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Behavior by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit
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Altruism
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Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself
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Kin Selection
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The process by which evolution selects for genes that cause individuals to provide benefits to their relatives
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Reciprocal Altruism
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Behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
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Group
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A collection of two or more people who believe they have something in common
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Prejudice
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A positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their group membership
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Discrimination
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A positive or negative behavior toward another person based on their group membership
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In-group
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A human category of which a person is a member
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Out-Group
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A human category of which a person is not a member
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Deindividuation
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Immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values
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Social Loafing
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People expend less effort when in a group than alone
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Bystander Intervention
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The act of helping strangers in an emergency situation
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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Individuals feel diminished responsibility for their actions because they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
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Group Polarization
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The tendency for a group's initial leaning to get stronger over time
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Social Influence
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The control of one person's behavior by another (people have a hedonic, approval, and accuracy motive to fulfill)
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Observational Learning
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The process of learning by observing others being rewarded and punished
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Norm
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A customary standard for behavior that are widely shared by members of a culture
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Normative Influence
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One person's behavior is influenced by another person's behavior because the latter provides information about what is appropriate
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Norm of Reciprocity
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The unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them
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Door-in-the-face Technique
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A strategy that uses reciprocating concessions to influence more behavior
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Conformity
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The tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it
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Obedience
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The tendency to do what authorities tell us to do simply because they tell us to do it
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Attitude
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An enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event
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Belief
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An enduring peice of knowledge about an object or event
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Informational Influence
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A person's behavior in influenced by another person's behavior because the latter provides information about what is good or true
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Persuasion
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A person's attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person
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Systematic Persuasion
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A change in attitudes or beliefs that is brought about by appeals to reason
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Heuristic Persuasion
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A change in attitudes or beliefs that is brought about by appeals to habit or emotion
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Foot-in-the-door Technique
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A strategy that uses a person's desire for consistency to influence that person's behavior
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Cognitive Dissonance
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An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs
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Attributions
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Inferences about the causes of people's behavior (situational or dispositional)
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Covariation Model of Attributions
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Consistency, distinctiveness, and concensus
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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The Tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person's behavior was caused by the situation
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Actor-Observor Bias
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The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others
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