Psychology, Test 2

Front 2

above average effect

Back 2

the tendency for people to rate themselves as above the average on most positive social attributes

Front 3

asynchronous communication

Back 3

use of text, which allows greater control over what we say to others; visual and voice cues are absent

Front 4

autobiographical memory

Back 4

concerned with memory of the ourselves in the past, sometimes over the life course as whole

Front 5

downward social comparison

Back 5

a comparison of the self to another who does less well than or is inferior to others

Front 6

ingratiation

Back 6

when we try to make others like us by conveying that we like them; praising others to flatter them

Front 7

intergroup comparisons

Back 7

judgments that result from comparisons between our group and another group

Front 8

intragroup comparisons

Back 8

judgments that result from comparisons between individuals who are members of the same group

Front 9

introspection

Back 9

to privately contemplate “who we are,” it is a method of attempting to gain self-knowledge

Front 10

person-versus-social identity continuum

Back 10

this signifies the two distinct ways that we can categorize ourselves. At the personal level, we can be thought of as a unique individual, whereas at the social identity level, we think of the self as a member of the group

Front 11

positive illusions

Back 11

beliefs we hold about ourselves that are not entirely accurate, that we can do more than is the case, that negative events aren’t as likely to befall us as they are others, and the chances for success are higher for the self than others

Front 12

possible selves

Back 12

image of how we might be in the future – either a “dreaded” potential to be avoided or “desired” potential that can be strived for

Front 13

salience

Back 13

when someone or some object stands out from its background or is the focus of attention

Front 14

self-control

Back 14

foregoing short-term rewards and instead waiting for long-term rewards

Front 15

self-deprecating

Back 15

putting ourselves down or implying that we are not as good as someone else

Front 16

self-efficacy

Back 16

the belief that we can achieve a goal as a result of our own actions

Front 17

self-esteem

Back 17

the degree to which we perceive ourselves positively or negatively; our overall attitude toward ourselves. It can be measured explicitly or implicitly

Front 18

self-evaluation maintenance model

Back 18

this perspective suggests that to maintain a positive view of ourselves, we distance ourselves from others who perform better than we do n valued dimensions and move closer to others who perform worse than us. This view suggests that doing so will protect our self-esteem

Front 19

self-promotion

Back 19

attempting to present ourselves to others as having positive attributes

Front 20

self-verification perspective

Back 20

theory that addresses the processes by which we lead others to agree with our views of ourselves; wanting others to agree with how we see ourselves

Front 21

social comparison theory

Back 21

Festinger (1954) suggested that people compare themselves to others because for many domains and attributes there is no objective yardstick to evaluate ourselves against, and other people are therefore highly informative

Front 22

social identity theory

Back 22

addresses how we respond when our group identity is salient. Suggests that we will move closer to positive others with whom we share an identity but distance from other ingroup members who perform poorly or otherwise make our social identity negative

Front 23

stereotype threat

Back 23

can occur when people believe that they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their group or that, because of their performance, they may in some way confirm negative stereotype of their group

Front 24

stigma consciousness

Back 24

a readiness to perceive negative outcomes a s a result of our devalued group membership

Front 25

upward social comparison

Back 25

a comparison of the self to another who does better than or is superior to us

Front 27

attitude-to-behavior process model

Back 27

a model of how attitudes guide behavior that emphasizes the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a given situation on an individuals definition of the present situation. This definition, in turn, influences overt behavior

Front 28

attitudes

Back 28

evaluation of various aspects of the social world

Front 29

central route (to persuasion)

Back 29

attitude change resulting from systematic processing of information presented in persuasive messages

Front 30

classical conditioning

Back 30

a basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus. In a sense, one stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation or occurrence of the other.

Front 31

cognitive dissonance

Back 31

an internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior

Front 32

conditioned stimulus

Back 32

the stimulus that comes to stand for or signal a prior unconditioned stimulus

Front 33

ego depletion

Back 33

when our capacity to self-regulate has been reduced because of prior expenditures limited resources

Front 34

elaboration-likelihood model (ELM)

Back 34

a theory suggesting that persuasion can occur in either of two distinct ways, differing in the amount of cognitive effort elaboration in requires

Front 35

explicit attitudes

Back 35

consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report

Front 36

fear appeals

Back 36

attempting to change people's behaviors by use of a message that induces fear

Front 37

forewarning

Back 37

advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion. Forewarning often increases resistance to the persuasion that follows

Front 38

habit

Back 38

repeatedly performing a specific behavior so responses become relatively automatic whenever that situation is encountered

Front 39

heuristic processing

Back 39

processing of information in a persuasive message that involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts

Front 40

hypocrisy

Back 40

publicly advocating some attitudes or behavior and then acting in a way that is inconsistent with these attitudes or behavior

Front 41

implicit attitudes

Back 41

unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses

Front 42

implementation plan

Back 42

a plan for how to implement our intentions to carry out some action

Front 43

instrumental conditioning

Back 43

a basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes or which permit avoidance of negative outcomes are strengthened

Front 44

less-leads-to-more effect

Back 44

the fact that offering individuals small rewards for engaging in counter attitudinal behavior often produces more dissonance, and so more attitude change, than offering them larger rewards

Front 45

mere exposure

Back 45

by having seen before, but not necessarily remembering having done so, attitudes toward an object can become more positive

Front 46

observational learning

Back 46

a basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others

Front 47

peripheral route (to persuasion)

Back 47

attitude change that occurs in response to peripheral persuasion cues, which is often based on information concerning the expertise or status of would-be persuaders

Front 48

persuasion

Back 48

efforts to change others' attitudes through the use of carious kinds of messages

Front 49

pluralistic ignorance

Back 49

when we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than us; refers to the fact that because none of the bystanders respond to an emergency, no one knows for sure what is happening and each depends on the others to interpret the situation

Front 50

prevention focus

Back 50

when people are concerned about avoiding losses and focused on preventing negative events from occurring

Front 51

reactance

Back 51

negative reactions to threats to one's personal freedom. Reactance often increases resistance to persuasion and can even produce negative attitude change or opposite to what was intended

Front 52

reference groups

Back 52

groups of people with whom we identify and whose opinions we value

Front 53

selective avoidance

Back 53

a tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes. Such avoidance increases resistance to persuasion

Front 54

self-regulation

Back 54

limited capacity to engage our willpower and control our own thinking and emotions

Front 55

social comparison

Back 55

the process through which we compare ourselves to others to determine whether our view of social reality is, or is not, correct

Front 56

social learning

Back 56

the process through which we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people

Front 57

subliminal conditioning

Back 57

classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals threshold of conscious awareness

Front 58

systematic processing

Back 58

processing of information in a persuasive message that involves careful consideration of message content and ideas

Front 59

theory of planned behavior

Back 59

an extension of the theory of reasoned action, suggesting that in addition to attitudes toward a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior

Front 60

theory of reasoned action

Back 60

a theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act. That decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior

Front 61

unconditioned stimulus

Back 61

a stimulus that evokes a positive or negative response without substantial learning

Front 63

bona fide pipeline

Back 63

a technique that uses priming to measure implicit racial attitudes

Front 64

collective guilt

Back 64

the emotion that can be experienced when we are confronted with the harmful actions done by our in-group against an out-group. It is most likely to be experienced when the harmful actions are seen as illegitimate

Front 65

common in-group identity model

Back 65

a theory suggesting that to the extent individuals in different groups view themselves as members of a single social entity, intergroup bias will be reduced

Front 66

contact hypothesis

Back 66

the view that increased contact between members of various social groups can be effective in reducing prejudice between them

Front 67

discrimination

Back 67

differential (usually negative) behaviors directed toward members of different social groups

Front 68

essence

Back 68

typically some biologically based feature that is used to distinguish one group and another; frequently can serve as justification for the differential treatment of those groups

Front 69

gender stereotypes

Back 69

stereotypes concerning the traits possessed by females and males and that distinguish the two genders from eachother

Front 70

glass ceiling

Back 70

barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified females from advancing to top-level positions

Front 71

implicit associations

Back 71

links between group membership and trait associations or evaluations that the perceiver may be unaware of. They can be activated automatically based on the group membership of a target

Front 72

incidental feelings

Back 72

those feelings induced separately or before a target is encountered, as a result those feeling are irrelevant to the group being judged by can still affect judgments of the target

Front 73

minimal groups

Back 73

when we are categorized into different groups based on some "minimal" criteria we tend to favor others who are categorized in the same group as ourselves compared to those categorized as members of a different group

Front 74

modern racism

Back 74

more subtle beliefs that blatant feelings of superiority. It consists primarily of thinking minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits that they deserve and a denial that discrimination affects their outcomes

Front 75

objective scales

Back 75

those with measurement units that are tied to external reality so that they can mean the same thing regardless of category membership (e.g., dollars earned, feet and inches, chosen or rejected)

Front 76

prejudice

Back 76

negative emotional responses based on group membership

Front 77

realistic conflict theory

Back 77

the view that prejudice stems from direct competition between various social groups over scare and valued resources

Front 78

recategorization

Back 78

shifts in the boundaries between our in-group ("us") and some out-group ("them"). As a result of such recategorization, people formerly viewed as out-group members may now be viewed a belonging to the in-group and consequently are viewed more positively

Front 79

respect

Back 79

being seen positively and as having worth

Front 80

risk averse

Back 80

we weigh possible losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains. As a result, we respond more negatively to changes that are framed as potential losses than positively to changes that are framed as potential gains

Front 81

shifting standards

Back 81

when we use one group as the standard but shift to another group as the comparison standard when judging members of a different group

Front 82

singlism

Back 82

negative stereotyping and discrimination directed toward people who are single

Front 83

social identity theory

Back 83

addresses how we respond when our group identity is salient. Suggests that we will move closer to positive others with whom we share an identity but distance from other ingroup members who perform poorly or otherwise make our social identity negative

Front 84

social learning view (of prejudice)

Back 84

the view prejudice is acquired through direct and vicarious experiences in much the same manner as other attitudes

Front 85

stereotypes

Back 85

beliefs about social groups in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are believed to share. Stereotypes are cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information

Front 86

subjective scales

Back 86

response scales that are open to interpretation and lack an externally grounded referent, including scales labeled from good to bad or weak to strong. They are said to be subjective because they can take on different meanings depending on the group membership of the person being evaluated

Front 87

subtype

Back 87

a subset of a group that is not consistent with the stereotype of the group as a whole

Front 88

super ordinate goals

Back 88

those that can only be achieved by cooperation between groups; goals that both sides to a conflict seek and that tie their interests together rather than driving them apart

Front 89

threat

Back 89

it primarily concerns fear that our group interests will be undermined or our self-esteem is n jeopardy

Front 90

tokenism

Back 90

can refer to hiring based on group membership. It can concern a numerically infrequent presence of members of a particular category or it can also refer to instances where individuals perform trivial positive actions for members of out-groups that are later used as an excuse for refusing more meaningful beneficial actions for members of these groups