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213 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Psychology
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The science of behavior and mental processes.
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Psychophysics
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The study of the relationships between features of physcial stimuli, such as their intensity, and the sensations we experience in response to them.
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Introspection
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Inward focusing on mental experiences, such as sensations or feelings.
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Structuralism
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The school of psychology that attempts to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its component parts.
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Functionalism
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The school of psychology that focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior
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Natural Selection
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The evolutionary process by which individuals of a species that are best adapted to their environments are the ones most likely to survive and pass along their traits to succeeding generations.
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Stream of Conscious
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The continuous flow of conscious thoughts.
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Behaviorism
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The school of psychology that holds that psychology should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior.
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Gestalt Psychology
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The school of psychology that holds that the brain structures our perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patters or wholes.q
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Gestalt
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A German word meaning "unitary form" or "pattern."
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Unconscious
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In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that lies outside the range or ordinary awareness and that contains primitive drives or instincts and unacceptable urges, wishes, or ideas.
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Psychodynamic perspective
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The view that behavior is inflouened by the struggle between unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses and opposing forces that try to keep this threatening material out of conscious.
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Psychoanalysis
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Freud's method of psychotherapy; it focuses on uncovering and working through the unconscious conflicts he believed were at the root of psychological problems.
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Behavioral Perspective
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An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.
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Social-Cognitive Theory
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A contemporary learning-based model that emphasizes the role played by both cognitive factors and environmental or situational factors in determining behavior
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Behavior Therapy
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A form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning.
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Humanistic Psychology
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The school of psychology that holds that free will and sonscious choice are essential aspects of the human experiences.
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Humanistic Perspectives
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An approach to the study of psycholgy that applies the principles of humanistic psychology
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Physiological Perspective
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An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the relationships between biological processes and behavior.
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Evolutionary Psychology
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A branch of psychology that focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior
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Cognitive Perspective
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An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the processes by which we acquire knowledge.
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Sociocultural Perspective
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An approach to the study of psychology that emphasizes the role of social and cultural influences on behavior
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Positive Psychology
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A contemporary movement within psychology that emphasizes the study of human virtues and assets, rather than weaknesses and deficits.
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Basic Research
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Research focused on acquiring knowledge even if such knowledge has no direct practical application
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Applied Research
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Research that attempts to find solutions to specific problems.
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Experimental Psychologists
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Psychologists who apply experimental methods to the study of behavior.
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Comparative Psychology
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Psychologists who study behaviorial similarities and differences among animal species.
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Physiological Psychologists
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Psychologists who focus on the biological underpinnings of behavior.
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Clinical Psychologist
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Psychologists who use psychological techni8ques to evaluate and treat indviduals with mental or psychological disorders.
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Psychiatrists
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Medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental or psychological disorders.
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Counseling Psychologists
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Psychologists who help people clarify their goals, make life decisions, and overcome problems they face in their lives.
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School psychologists
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Psychologists who evaluate and assist children with learning problems or other special needs.
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Educational psychologists
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Psychologists who study issues relating to the measurment of intelligence and the processes involved in educational or academic achievement.
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Developmental psychologists
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Psychologists who focus on processes involving physical, cognitive, social, and personality development
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Personality Psychologists
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Psychologists who study the psychological characteristics and behaviors that distinguish us as individuals and lead us to act consistently over time.
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Social Psychologists
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Psychologists who study group or social influences on behavior and attitudes.
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Environmental psychologists
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Psychologists who study relationships between the physical environment and behavior.
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Industrial/organizational psychologists
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Psychologists who study people's behavior at work.
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Health Psychologist
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Psychologists who focus on the relationship between psychological factors and physical health.
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Consumer Psychologist
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Psychologists who study why people purchase particular products and brands.
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Neuropsychologists
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Psychologists who study relationships between the brain and behavior.
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Geropsychologists
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Psychologists who focus on psychological processes involved in aging
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Forensic Psychologists
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Psychologists involved in the application of psychology to the legal system.
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Sport Psychologists
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Psychologists who apply psychology to understanding and improving athletic performance.
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Emperical Approach
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A method of developing knowledge based on evaluating evidence gathered from experiments and careful observation.
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Inferences
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Conclusions drawn from observations
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Theories
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Formulations that account for relationships among observed events or experimental findings in ways that make them more understandable and predictable.
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Variables
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Factors or measure that vary within an experiment or among individuals
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Scientific Method
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A method of inquiry involving careful observation and use of experimental methods
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Hypothesis
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A precise prediction about the outcomes of an experiment
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Statistics
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The branch of mathematics involving the tabulation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
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Statistical Significance
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A term representing that a finding is unlikely to have been due to chance or random fluctuations
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Replication
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The attempt to duplicate findings
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Case Study Methods
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An in-depth study of one or more individuals
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Survey Method
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A research method that uses structured interviews or questionnaires to gather inormation about groups of people.
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Structured Interview
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An interview in which a set of specific questions is asked in a particular order.
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Questionnaire
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A written set of questions or statements to which people reply by marking their responses on an answer form.
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Population
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All the individuals or organisms that constitute particular groups
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Samples
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Subsets of a population
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Random Sampling
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A method of sampling in which each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected
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Social Desirability Bias
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The tendency to respond to questions in a sociall desirable manner
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Volunteer bias
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The type of bias that arises when people who volunteer to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them unrepresentative of the population from which they were drawn.
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Naturalistic Observation method
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A method of research based on careful observation of behavior in natural settings
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Correlational method
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A research method that examines relationships between variables
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Correlation coefficient
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A statistical measure of association between variables that can vary from -1.00 to +1.00
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Experimental Method
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A method of scientific investigation involving the manipulation of independent variables and observation or measurement of their effecs on dependent variables under controlled conditions
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Independent variables
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Factors that are manipulated in an experiment.
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Dependent variables
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The effects or outcomes of an experiment that are belived to be dependent on the values of the independent variables.
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Control groups
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Groups of research participants in an experimental study who do not receive the experimental treatment or intervention
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Random Assignment
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A method of randomly assigning research participants to experimental or control groups
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Placebo
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An inert substance or experimental condition that resembles the active treatment.
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Placebo Effects
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Positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from a participant's expectations about the effects of treatment rather than from the experimental treatment itself
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Single-blind Studies
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In drug research, studies in which research participants are kept uninformed about whether they are receivin the experimental drug or a placebo
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Double-Blind Studies
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In drug research, studies in which both participants and experimenters are kept uninformed about which participants receive the active drug and which receive the placebo.
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Ethics Review Committees
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Committees that evaluate whether proposed studies meet ethical guidelines
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Social Desirability Bias
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The tendency to respond to questions in a sociall desirable manner
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Volunteer bias
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The type of bias that arises when people who volunteer to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them unrepresentative of the population from which they were drawn.
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Naturalistic Observation method
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A method of research based on careful observation of behavior in natural settings
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Correlational method
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A research method that examines relationships between variables
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Correlation coefficient
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A statistical measure of association between variables that can vary from -1.00 to +1.00
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Experimental Method
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A method of scientific investigation involving the manipulation of independent variables and observation or measurement of their effecs on dependent variables under controlled conditions
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Independent variables
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Factors that are manipulated in an experiment.
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Dependent variables
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The effects or outcomes of an experiment that are belived to be dependent on the values of the independent variables.
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Control groups
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Groups of research participants in an experimental study who do not receive the experimental treatment or intervention
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Random Assignment
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A method of randomly assigning research participants to experimental or control groups
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Placebo
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An inert substance or experimental condition that resembles the active treatment.
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Placebo Effects
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Positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from a participant's expectations about the effects of treatment rather than from the experimental treatment itself
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Single-blind Studies
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In drug research, studies in which research participants are kept uninformed about whether they are receivin the experimental drug or a placebo
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Double-Blind Studies
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In drug research, studies in which both participants and experimenters are kept uninformed about which participants receive the active drug and which receive the placebo.
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Ethics Review Committees
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Committees that evaluate whether proposed studies meet ethical guidelines
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Informed Consent
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Agreement to participate in a study following disclosure of information about the purposes and nature of the study and its potential risks and benefits.
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Critical thinking
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The adoption of a skeptical, questioning attitude and careful scrutiny of claims or arguments
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Neurons
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Nerve cells
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Brain
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The mass of nerve tissue encased in the skull that controls virtually everything we are and everything we do.
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Soma
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The cell body of a neuron; contains the nucleus of the cell and carries out the cell's metabolic functions.
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Axon
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The tubelike part of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body toward other neurons
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Terminal Buttons
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Swellings at the tips of axons from which neurotransmitters are dispatched into the synapse.
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Neurotransmitters
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Chemical messengers that transport nerve impulses from one nerve cell to another
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Synapse
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The small fluid-filled gap between neurons through which neurotransmitters carry nural impulses
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Dendrites
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Treelike structures projecting from the soma that receive neural messages from neighboring neurons
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Sensory Neurons
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Neurons that transmit information from sensory organs, muscles, and inner organs to the spinal cord and brain.
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Motor Neurons
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Neurons that convey nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
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Glands
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Body organs or structures that produce secretions
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Hormones
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Secretions from endocrine glands that help regulate bodily processes.
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Interneurons
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Nerve cells in the central nervous system that connect neurons to neurons; in the brain, they are involved in processing information.
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Glands
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Body organs or structures that produce secretions
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Hormones
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Secretions from endocrine glands that help regulate bodily processes.
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Interneurons
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Nerve cells in the central nervous system that connect neurons to neurons; in the brain, they are involved in processing information.
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Nerve
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A bundle of axons from different neurons that transmit nerve impulses.
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Glial cells
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small but numerous cells in the nervous system that support neurons and that forms the myelin sheath found on many axons.
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Myelin Sheath
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A layer of protective insulation that covers the axons of certain neurons and helps speed transmission of nerve impulses
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nodes of Ranvier
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Gaps in the myelin sheath that create noninsulated areas along the axon
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Multiple Sclerosis
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A disease of the central nervous system in which the myelin sheath that insulates axons is damaged or destroyed.
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Ions
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Electrically charged chemical particles
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Resting potential
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The electrical potential across the cell membrane of a neuron in its resting state
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Depolarization
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A positive shift in the electrical charge in the neuron's resting potential, making it less negatively charged
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Action Potential
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An abrupt change from a negative to a positive charge of a nerve cell, also called a neural impulse
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All-or-None Principle
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The principle by which neurons will fire only when a change in the level of excitation occurs that is sufficient to produce an action potential
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Refractory Period
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A temporary state in which a neuron is unable to fire in response to continued stimulation
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Receptor Site
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A site on the receiving neuron in which neurotransmitters dock.
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Reuptake
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The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the transmitting neuron
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Enzymes
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Organic substances that produce certain chemical changes in other organic substances through a catalytic action.
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Neuromodulators
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Chemicals released in the nervous system that influence the sensitivity of the receiving neuron to neurotransmitters
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Antagonists
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Drugs that block the actions of neurotransmitters by occupying the receptor sites in which the neurotransmitters dock
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Schizophrenia
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A severe and chronic psychological disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, and behaviors.
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Hallucinations
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Perceptions experienced in the absence of external stimuli.
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Delusions
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Fixed but patently false beliefs, such as believing that one is being hounded by demons
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Parkinson's disease
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A progressive brain disease involving destruction of dopamine-producing brain cells and characterized by muscle tremors, shakiness, rigidity, and difficulty in walking and controlling fine body movements
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Agonists
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Drugs that either increase the availability or effectiveness of neurotransmitters or mimic their actions.
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Stimulants
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A drug that activates the central nervous system, such as cocaine or nicotine.
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Amphetamines
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A class of synthetically derived stimulant drugs, such as methamphetamine or "speed."
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Antidepressants
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Drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters in the brain
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Endorphins
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Natural chemicals released in the brain that have pain-killing and pleasure-inducing effects.
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Nervous System
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The network of n erve cells for communicating and processing information from within the outside the body
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Central Nervous System
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The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord
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Spinal Cord
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The column of nerves that transmits information betweent the brain and the peripheral nervous system
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Spine
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The protective bony column that houses the spinal cord
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Reflex
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An automatic, unlearned response to particular stimuli.
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Spinal Reflex
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A reflex controlled at the level of the spinal cord that may involve as few as two neurons
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Peripheral Nervous System
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The part of the nervous system that connects the spinal cord and brain with the sensory organs, muscles, and glands
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Somatic Nervous System
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The part of the peripheral nervous system that transmits information between the central nervous system and teh sensory organs and muscles; also controls voluntary movements
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Autonomic Nervous System
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The part of the peripheral nervous system that automatically regulates involuntar bodily processes, such as breathing, heart rate and digestion
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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The branch of the autonomic nervous system that accelerates bodily processes and releases the stores of energy needed to meet increased physical demands.
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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The branch of the autonomic nervous system that regulates bodily processes, such as digestion, that replenish stores of energy.
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Hindbrain
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The lowest and, in evolutionay terms, oldest part of the brain; includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
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Medulla
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A structure in the hindbrain involved in regulating basic life functions, such as heartbeat and respiration.
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Pons
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A structure in the hindbrain involved with sleep and wakefulness.
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Brainstem
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The "stalk" in the lower part of the brain that connects the spinal cord to higher regions of the brain
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Cerebellum
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A structure in the hindbrain involved in controlling coordination and balance.
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Midbrain
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The part of the brain that lies on top of the hindbrain and below the forebrain
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Reticular formation
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A weblike formation of neurons involved in regulating states of attention, alertness, and arousal.
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Forebrain
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The largest and uppermost part of the brain; contains the thalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex.
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Thalamus
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A structure in the forebrain that serves as a relay station for sensory information and that plays a key role in regulating states of wakefulness and sleep
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Basal Ganglia
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An assmeblage of neurons lying in the forebrain that is important in controlling movement and coordination
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Hypotholamus
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A small, pea-sized structure in the forebrain that helps regulate many vital bodily functions, including body temperature and reproduc`tion, as well as emotional states, aggression, and response to stress
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Limbic System
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A formation of structures in the forebrain that includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus; is involved in memory and emotional processing
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Amygdala
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A set of almond-shaped structures in the limbic system believed to play an important role in aggression, rage, and fear
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Hippocampus
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A structure in the limbic system invlved in memory formation
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Cerebral Cortex
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The wrinkled, outer layer of gray matter that covers the cerebral functions, such as thought and language.
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Cerebrum
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The largest mass of the forebrain, consisting two cerebral hemispheres.
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Cerebral hemisphere
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The right and left masses of the cerebrum, which are joined by the corpus callosum.
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Corpus Callosum
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The thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
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Occipital Lobes
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The parts of the cerebral corex, located at the back of both cerebral hemispheres, that process visual stimuli
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Parietal Lobes
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The parts of the cerebral cortex, located on the side of each cerebral hemisphere, that process bodily sensations.
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Somatosensory cortex
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The part of the parietal lobe that processes information about touch and pressure on the skin, as well as the position of the parts of our bodies as we move about.
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Frontal Lobes
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The parts of the cerebral cortex, located at the front of the cerbral hemispheres, that are considered the "executive center" of the brain because of their role in higher mental functions.
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Motor Cortex
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A region of the frontal lobes involved in regulating body movement
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Temporal Lobes
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The parts of the cerebral cortex lying beneath and somewhat behind the frontal lobes that are involved in processing auditory stimuli.
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Association Areas
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Parts of the cerebral cortex that piece together sensory information to form meaningful perceptions of the world and perform higher mental functions.
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EEG (electroencephalograph)
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A device that records electrical activity in the brain
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CT (Computed Tomography) scan
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A computer-enhanced imaging technique in which an X-Ray beam is passed through the body at different angles to generate a three-dimensional image of bodily structures
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PET (positron emission tomography)scan
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An imaging technique in which a radioactive sugar tracer is injected into the bloodstream and used to measure levels of activity of various parts of the brain
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MRI (Magnetic Resonance imaging)
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A technique that uses a magnetic field to create a computerized image of internal bodily structures.
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lesioning
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In studies of brain functioning, the intentional destruction of bring tissue in order to observe the effects on behavior
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Electrical Recording
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As a method of investigating brain functioning, a process of recoding the electrical changes that occure in a specifici neuron or groups of neurons in the brain in relation to particular activities or behaviors
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Lateralization
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The specialization of the right and left cerebral hemispheres for particular functions.
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Electrical Stimulation
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As a method of investigating brain functioning, a process of electrically stimulating particular parts of the brain to observe the effects on behavior.
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Broca's Area
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An area of the left frontal lobe involved in speech.
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Wernicke's area
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An area of the elft temporal lobe involved in processing written and spoken language
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Aphasia
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Loss or impairment of the ability to understand or express language
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Plasticity
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The ability of the brain to adapt itself after trauma or surgical alteration
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Stroke
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The sudden loss of consciousness and resulting paralysis, loss of sensation, and other disability or death resulting from blockage of blood to a part of the brain or from bleeding in the brain
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Prefrontal Cortex
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The area of the frontal lobe that lies in front of the motor cortex and that is involved in higher mental functions, including thinking, planning, impulse control, and weighing the consequences of behavior.
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Laceration
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A type of brain trauma in which a foreign object, such as a bullet or a piece of shrapnel, pierces the skull and injures the brain
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Concussion
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A jarring of the brain caused by a blow to the head.
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Epilepsy
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A neurological disorder characterized by seizures marked by suddent, violent discharges of electrical activity in the brain
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Split-brain Patients
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Persons whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed.
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Endocrine System
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The body's system of glands that release their secretions, called hormones, directly into the bloodstream
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Pancreas
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An endocrine gland located near the stomach that produces the hormone insulin
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Diabetes
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A metabolic disease involving the insufficient production of insulin or failure to efficiently use the insulin that is produced.
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Homeostasis
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The tendency of systems to maintain a steady, internally balanced state
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Pituitary Gland
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An endocrine gland in the brain that produces various hormones involved in growth, regulation of the menstrual cycle, and childbirth.
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Pineal Gland
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A small endocrine gland in the brain that produces the hormone melatonin, which is involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles.
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Adrenal glands
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A pair of endocrine glands located just above the kidneys that produce various stress-related hormones
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Thyroid gland
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An endocrine gland in the neck that secretes hormones involved in regulating metabolic functions and physical growth
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Gonads
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Sex glands that produce sex hormones and germ cells
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Ovaries
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The female gonads, which secrete the female sex hormones estrogen ad proesterone and produce mature egg cells.
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Testes
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The male gonads, which produce sperm and secrete the male sex hormone testosterone
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Germ Cells
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Sperm and egg cells from which new life develops
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Premenstrual Syndrome
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A cluster of physical and psychological symptoms occuring in the few days preceding the menstrual flow
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genotype
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an organisms genetic code
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genes
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basic units of heredity that contain the individual's genetic code
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deoxyribonuleic acid (DNA)
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The basic chemical material in chromosomes that carries the individual's genetic code
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chromosomes
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rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that house the individuals genes
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phenotype
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the observable physical and behavior characteristics of an organism, repreenting the influences of the genotype and environment
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polygenic traits
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traits that are influenced by multiple genes interacting in complex ways
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Familial association studies
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Studes that examine the degree to which disorders or characteristics are shared among family memebers
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identical twins
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Twins who developed from the same zygote and so have identical genes
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zygote
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a fertilized egg cell
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fraternal twins
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twins who developed from separate zygoes and so have 50 percent of their genes in common
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twin studies
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Studies that examine the degree to which concordance rates between co-twins for particular disorders or characteristics vary in relation to whether the twins are identical or fraternal
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Concordance rates
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In twin studies, teh percentages of cases in which both memebers of twin pairs share the same trait or disorder
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Adoptee Studies
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Sudies that examine whether adoptees are more similar to their biological or adoptive parents with respect to the psychological traits or the disorders they develop.
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