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112 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social construction
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"...concepts do not have a reality independent of those who construct them" - Kay Deaux
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Gender
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socio-cultural dimensions of being male or female
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Race
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people connected by common descent - distinct ethnic 'stock; distinguished one population from another - usually based on visible traits, genes, and self-identification
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Ethnicity
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a person's sense of cultural and historical identity and affiliation
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Ethnic identity
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Can be based on geography, nationality, ancestry, family, culture and sub-culture, religion, language, race, etc.
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William James
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theories of the "I" and the "Me"; believed that people are "self-aware, self-conscious, and self-determined"
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William McDougall
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believed people were products of biological drives, molded by culture & society into civilized beings.
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positivism
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holds that there is a straightforward one-to-one relationship between the events of the outside world and people’s knowledge of them
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qualitative inquiry
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approaches the study of human behavior by trying to understand the meanings, motives and beliefs that underlie a person’s experience
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steps of constructing a theory
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1. Observation
2. Literature Review 3. Construct a theory 4. Operationalize 5. Test the theory 6. Evaluate results |
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construct validity
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the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure
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independent variable
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the one the researcher manipulates or varies to test the hypothesis (ex: proximity)
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dependent variable
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the one that is used to assess the impact of the independent variable
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reliability
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the consistency of the test in terms of measurement
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descriptive research
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observe and assess a phenomenon without manipulating variables
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correlational research
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looking for associations – but saying nothing about causation
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experimental design
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looking for cause and effect – field and laboratory
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meta analysis
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A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects
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research design (what to keep in mind)
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representativeness, realism, control
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ethics in research
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Informed consent
Distress and discomfort Deception Debriefing Alternative perspectives |
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why study the self?
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• The filter of self-interest and self-referencing
• The ‘self’ as a framework for defining others • The self and social world act reciprocally to create the person and the situation – a process of mutual constitution |
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William James' the "Me"
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the self-as-known (object) – one can describe the self – can be described – including physical traits, possessions, personality characteristics, social roles (multiple social selves), relationships, thoughts and feelings and spirituality
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William James' the "I"
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the self as knower (subject) - the sense of agency; of uniqueness; the sense of continuity from moment to moment; an awareness of one’s own awareness
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George Herbert Mead
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the self in relation to three main determinants: human evolution, the individual’s own development, and social forces and processes –
especially – an awareness of the self in relation to others and a reflexive self (able to observe, plan and respond to own behavior) |
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Irving Goffman
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the dramaturgical self – people as ‘actors in the drama of life”
face: “ the positive social value a person claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact” |
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Elements of the self (3)
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- a personal self (enduring sense of self)
- social self (collection of social selves, defined by context) - relational self (defined within relation to others) |
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the biological self
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temperament, reactivity; innate tendencies (e.g. Eysenck concept of introversion-extraversion)
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Adorno’s authoritarian personality (1950)
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one in which the person adopts highly rigid views which are strongly prejudiced
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Bem's Self-perception theory (1972)
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argues that people know who thy are by observing their own behavior
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Learned Helplessness (Seligman 1975)
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describes people whose childhood experiences taught them that they have no control over their destiny
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Self-efficacy (Bandura 1977)
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a sense of confidence that one can perform the behaviors that are demanded in a specific situation
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Locus of Control (Rotter 1966)
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describes the degree to which a person sites control in themselves or in chance, luck or fate – as a product of their early experience
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Self-stereotyping (Turner 1982)
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where a person identifies with a social group and categorizes themselves as a member of that group – and adopts the stereotypical behavior and persona expected of members of that group
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Social Identity theory (Tajfel and Turner)
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proposes that people’s individual psychological processes (including, crucially, their identities) are transformed in group settings.
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mutual constitution
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“…psychological tendencies require and are shaped by engagement with the culture-specific meaning, practices, artifacts, and institutions of particular cultural contexts, and these psychological tendencies serve to perpetuate these cultural contexts"
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the Intersubjective self (Henriques)
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the self as a product of common impressions, symbols, ideas, and understanding shared by people rather than being products of individual minds
(reflexive, connected, situated in the world, intentional, product of presencing practices) |
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Technologies of the self (Foucault)
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the ways in which people’s identities are molded both by overt regulatory power and by self regulation arising from surveillance
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Gestalt psychology
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underlines the importance of context in the way that people perceive objects – particularly the ideas of figure and ground
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social cognition (Neisser)
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“The world that people perceive, understand, and with which they interact is a product of them both taking in information from the world and their own interpretation of this information through reference to the knowledge they have stored in their memory.”
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cognitive schemas (Bartlett 1930's)
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•People absorb information
•Interpret it in relation to their experience and knowledge •Store it as an interpreted memory |
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attribution theory
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How we explain behavior in terms of internal dispositions or external circumstance
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correspondence inference (Jones and Davis)(attribution theory)
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perception based on role expectations
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the fundamental attribution error (Ross)
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Ross (1977) described the fundamental error as the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences
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actor-observer bias (attribution theory)
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a figure/ground phenomenon – the central focus in observation is the person
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self-awareness (attribution theory)
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a conscious state of self-focus therefore heightened sensitivity to our own attributes
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confirmation bias
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a tendency to search for information that confirms one’s perceptions
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illusory relationships
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a tendency to perceive relationships where none exist
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illusory control
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an inflated sense of our own control over situations
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personal construct theory (kelley)
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primarily a theory about hoe individuals build up and use ‘personal constructs’ to make sense of and operate within the social world
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social desirability pressure
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when there is less social pressure around expression of attitudes the relationship is strengthened
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self-presentation theory
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assumes our behavior aims to create a desired impression
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cognitive dissonance theory
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the tension that arises when we experience two inconsistent cognitions – to reduce the unpleasant feeling – we adjust our thinking
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social identity
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“…social categories in which an individual claims membership as well as the personal meanings associated with those categories.” Deaux (1993 p 102)
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structure of social identity
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including position and salience, master statuses – and their relation to the feelings and behavior
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function of social identity
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including self enhancement/esteem; existential needs (a ‘coherent self-conception’); control; self-knowledge
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context of social identity
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Context – (‘new historicism’) – the ‘when and where’ of identity
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development of social identity
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Development – including acquisition and loss
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Erikson
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Erikson (1959) describes psychosocial development through eight critical stages – with the adolescent stage focusing on identity formation
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Marcia
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Marcia (1976) describes the move from crisis to commitment in identity formation – and the possibilities of identity ‘achieved’, ‘foreclosed’ or ‘confused’
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psychosocial moratorium
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a period of free experimentation before a final identity is achieved
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gender identity
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“…the acquisition of a set of beliefs, attitudes, and values about oneself as a man or a woman in many areas of social life, including intimate relations, family, work, community, and religion.”
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gender identity development
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1. Understanding the concept of gender
2. Learning gender role standards and social expectations 3. Identifying with parents 4. Forming a gender preference |
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psychoanalytic theory (gender identity)
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…the child identifies with the same sex parent- via the castration complex and the resolution of the Oedipal complex – difficult to test empirically and to a large extent rejected as marginalizing women.
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social learning theory (gender identity)
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learning through observation and modeling
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cognitive development theory (gender identity)
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sex-role typing follows naturally and inevitably from universal principles of cognitive development
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gender schema theory
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“… proposes that sex typing derives in large measure from gender-schematic processing, from a generalized readiness on the part of the child to encode and to organize information …according to the culture’s definition of maleness and femaleness
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schema
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“…a cognitive structure, a network of associations that organizes and guides an individual’s perception.” An “anticipatory structure” Bem (1983 p 603) – “entails a readiness to sort information into categories on the basis of some particular dimension”
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gender 'in context'
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“…a component of ongoing interactions in which perceivers emit expectancies, targets (selves) negotiate their own identities, and the context in which interaction occurs shapes the resultant behavior.”
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the perceiver's gender belief system - global & specific
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“…a set of beliefs about men and women …both descriptive and prescriptive elements"
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behavioral confirmation (gender)
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•“…the fact that women and men are perceived and often treated differently…may cause women and men to respond differently.” p 377
•The likelihood of the confirmation may be influenced by perceived desirability of the behavior, the strength of the expectation and the situational context |
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the working self-concept
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• The ‘perceiver’ interprets the targets behavior – often in line with expectations and regardless of confirmation
• The target interprets his/her behavior – and may internalize that interpretation – “In effect, the target person has become the person the perceiver expected.” |
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defining race
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breeding stock, gene frequencies, shared culture and geographic origin, physical characteristics
a way of justifying social hierarchy |
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ethnicity
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referring to the broad groupings of [people] on the basis of both race and culture of origin
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politics of race
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actual - what race really means
normative - what people believe it means |
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problems with ethnic identity in psychological research
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A categorical variable
At best imprecise/arbitrary – ‘social constructions” Ignores the heterogeneity of the group Confusion around labels used within the group Ignores the situational use of labels Underestimates the merging of ethnic identities |
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hindrances on cultural/ethnic self esteem
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inequality – socio-economic and political
generational patterns of exploitation enduring negative stereotypes systemic prejudice and discrimination persistent cultural imperialism |
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nigrescence - the formation of black identity
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pre-encounter/anti-black: low racial self-esteem
pre-encounter/assimilation: pro-American or mainstream identity encounter - eye opening event(s) immersion/emmersion - pro-black and/or anti-white internalization/commitment - comfort with race, 3 aspects of identity (black national, bicultural, multicultural) |
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types of groups
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•Incidental groups: short-term, inconsequential
•Membership groups: shared commitment, common goals •Identity Reference groups: self-categorization, frame of reference for behavior, group affiliation |
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minimal group paradigm
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the ‘mere presence’ hypothesis – e.g. social categorization and the selective allocation of resources; idling or energizing
“…the mere perception of belonging to two distinct groups – that is social categorization per se – is sufficient to trigger intergroup discrimination favoring the in-group.” |
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social identity theory
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affiliation as part of identity and of enhancing self-esteem
“…the essential criteria for group membership, as they apply to large scale social categories, are that the individuals concerned define themselves and are defined by others as members of a group.” |
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social influence
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conformity, norms and cultural values, deindividuation
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intergroup behavior
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“behavior based on the actors’ identification of themselves and the others as belonging to different social categories.”
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social categorization
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•“…cognitive tools that segment, classify, and order the social environment and thus enable the individual to undertake many forms of social action.”
•a system of self-referencing – “they create a and define the individual’s place in society.” |
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principles of social identity theory
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• Individuals strive to achieve or maintain a positive social identity
• Positive social identity is based to a large extent on favorable comparisons between in-groups and out-groups • When social identity is unsatisfactory, individuals strive to either leave their group or make their group more positively distinct |
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the need for differentiation
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•The aim of differentiation is to maintain or achieve superiority over an out-group
•It is essentially competitive – either on the level of broad social comparison or ‘realistic’ competition involving incompatible group goals – often based on the distribution of finite resources |
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superordinate goals
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•Superordinate goals – that could be achieved only through cooperation between groups
•“It is predicted that contact in itself will not produce marked decrease in the existing state of tension between groups.” |
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social loafing
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(inhibition) – the tendency to exert less effort toward a common goal
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social energizing
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(facilitation) – the strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of other
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Asch conformity study
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•Specifically - the most important factor in the study – the isolation of being the a lone dissenting voice
•In general - conformity is related to personal characteristics like low self-esteem and a high need for approval – even gender; is influenced by the cultural context and is often more situational than personal |
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Milgram obedience experiment
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an exploration of how ordinary people can be persuaded to inflict cruelty on another person
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deindividuation
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•Loss of awareness and evaluation apprehension
•Particularly in a group situation that fosters responsiveness to group norms •Influenced by – anonymity; group size; in a situation of diminished self awareness |
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polarization
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“…the tendency of group decisions to be more extreme than the mean of the individual decisions made by the group members.”, the "risky shift"
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social comparison theory
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focuses on people’s desire for social approval and avoidance of social censure –members try to align themselves with the group position.
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groupthink
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• “Groupthink is what happens when a small, highly cohesive group of like-minded people becomes so obsessed with reaching consensus that they loose touch with reality and make a catastrophic decision.”
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tokenism
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- visibility (heightened attention paid to token)
- contrast (exaggeration of difference) - role encapsulation (expectations) |
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causes of tokenism
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•Token proportions in a work group
•Gender status •Occupational appropriateness •Occupational prestige |
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yoder's tokenism findings - beyond numbers
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•Occupational deviance – not important
•Proportional under-representation – necessary but not sufficient •Subordinated gender status – contributed regardless of gender-appropriateness or prestige |
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social categorization
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•“…cognitive tools that segment, classify, and order the social environment and thus enable the individual to undertake many forms of social action.”
•a system of self-referencing – “they create a and define the individual’s place in society.” |
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principles of social identity theory
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• Individuals strive to achieve or maintain a positive social identity
• Positive social identity is based to a large extent on favorable comparisons between in-groups and out-groups • When social identity is unsatisfactory, individuals strive to either leave their group or make their group more positively distinct |
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the need for differentiation
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•The aim of differentiation is to maintain or achieve superiority over an out-group
•It is essentially competitive – either on the level of broad social comparison or ‘realistic’ competition involving incompatible group goals – often based on the distribution of finite resources |
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superordinate goals
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•Superordinate goals – that could be achieved only through cooperation between groups
•“It is predicted that contact in itself will not produce marked decrease in the existing state of tension between groups.” |
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social loafing
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(inhibition) – the tendency to exert less effort toward a common goal
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social energizing
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(facilitation) – the strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of other
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Asch conformity study
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•Specifically - the most important factor in the study – the isolation of being the a lone dissenting voice
•In general - conformity is related to personal characteristics like low self-esteem and a high need for approval – even gender; is influenced by the cultural context and is often more situational than personal |
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Milgram obedience experiment
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an exploration of how ordinary people can be persuaded to inflict cruelty on another person
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deindividuation
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•Loss of awareness and evaluation apprehension
•Particularly in a group situation that fosters responsiveness to group norms •Influenced by – anonymity; group size; in a situation of diminished self awareness |
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polarization
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“…the tendency of group decisions to be more extreme than the mean of the individual decisions made by the group members.”, the "risky shift"
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social comparison theory
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focuses on people’s desire for social approval and avoidance of social censure –members try to align themselves with the group position.
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groupthink
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• “Groupthink is what happens when a small, highly cohesive group of like-minded people becomes so obsessed with reaching consensus that they loose touch with reality and make a catastrophic decision.”
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tokenism
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- visibility (heightened attention paid to token)
- contrast (exaggeration of difference) - role encapsulation (expectations) |
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causes of tokenism
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•Token proportions in a work group
•Gender status •Occupational appropriateness •Occupational prestige |
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yoder's tokenism findings - beyond numbers
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•Occupational deviance – not important
•Proportional under-representation – necessary but not sufficient •Subordinated gender status – contributed regardless of gender-appropriateness or prestige |
