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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Elaborative Encoding
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– the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory
-constructed not recorded -occurs naturally in human experience as we encode meanging to events in our lives allowing us to retrieve information that was initially processed long ago -information that has significance encodes easily cause of the relatinship it shares with other information |
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Memory
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the ability to store and retrieve information over time
-remarkably compley remarkably fragile -Memories are the residue of events, the enduring changes that experience makes in our brains and leaves behind |
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Encoding
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– the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
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Storage
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– the process of maintaining information in memory over time
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Retrieval
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– the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
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Semantic vs Rhyme vs Visual
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-the overwhelming ability to remember when connecting new information with meaning proves that semantic judgements are a powerful tool in remembering
-this also displays elaborative encoding |
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What parts of the brain are active during elaborative encoding?....
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inner part of left temporal and lower left part of frontal lobe
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Visual Memory Encoding
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The process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
-ex. Simonides recreating banquet hall "after he left the building..." -creating visual representations of what you want to remember and take mental walks Benefits 1. elaborative encoding 2. verbal (temporal/frontal)and visual placeholder of data (occipetal lobe) |
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Organizational Encoding
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The act of categorizing information by noticing the relationships among a series of items
-waitress organizing orders in terms of drinks/food hot/cold -Upper surface of left frontal lobe -focuses on similaritites as well as differences |
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Memory Storage
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-The Process of maintaining information in memory over time
-memory store is where we keep memories when we are not consciously experiencing them |
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Three Major Subdivisions of Memory
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1. Sensory Memory Store
2. Short Term Memory Store 3. Long Term Memory Store |
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Sensory Memory Store
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– the place in which sensory information is kept for a few seconds or less
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Two Types of Sensory Memory store
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Iconic Memory – a fast-decaying store of visual information
Echoic Memory – a fast-decaying store of auditory information -1-3 seconds |
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Short Term Memory Store
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– a place where nonsensory information is kept for more than a few seconds but less than a minute
-Short-term memory fades rapidly in accuracy and total recall -15-20 seconds |
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Rehersal
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-The process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it
-everytime you repeat information it re enters short term memory |
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How many units can we hold in our memory?
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Seven however chunking can change the composition of the unit to incorporate more information into each unit
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Chunking
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combinging small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short term memory
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Working Memory
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-more dynamic model of a limited capacity memory system
-Active maintence of information in short term storage -operations and processes we use to work with information in short term memory -ex chess game (visual representation, mental manipulation, awarenes if the flow of information .. piece position, availible moves, timer..) |
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Long Term Memory Store
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- a place in which information can be kept for hours, days, weeks, years ...
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What region is critical in long term memory?
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Hippocampal region is critical in placing new information into long term memory store
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Anterograde Amnesia
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-the inability to transfer new in formation from the short term store into the long term store
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Retrograde Amnesia
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– the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation
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Anterograde vs Retrograde
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transfering new information into long term memory store vs retrieving old information from long term memory store
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Where are memories are stored?
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-various regions of the brain participate in long term memory
-different aspects of that memory may be stored in different parts of the brain |
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Hippocampal Region and Long term memory
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- region acts to gather information from different sites to consolidate them into a single coherent memory
-an index damage to this site will effect the ability to store short term memoy and retrieve long term memory |
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"Cells that fire together wire together"
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-with the increase in synapse firing between two neurons strengthens the connection between two neurons making it easier to communicate
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What did Aplsia shock experiment teach?....
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-changes involving the synapses for both short term storage (enhanced neurotransmitter release) and long term storage (growth of new synapses)
-ANY EXPERIENCE THAT RESULTS IN MEMORY PRODUCES PHYSICAL CHANGES IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM |
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Long Term Pontentiation
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-enhanced neural processing that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections
-occurs in several pathways in hippocampus -primary agent responsible for LTP is NMDA receptor |
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NMDA Receptor
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-influences the flow of information from one neuron to another across the synapse by controlling the initiation of LTP in the most hippocampal pathways
-abundance contained in hippocampus |
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What happens when NMDA becomes activated?...
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1. presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter called glutamate (excitatory)
attaches to post synaptic NMDA receptor site 2. excitation occurs in post two events intiate LTP which in turn increases synaptic connections by allowing neurons that fire together to wire together |
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Memory storage depends...
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changes in synapses and LTP increases synaptic connections
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Retrival
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-bringing to mind information formerly encoded and stored
-most important of memorial phases |
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Retrieval Cue
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– external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind
-the retrieval cue fixation remembers for psychostages of development |
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Encoding Specificity Principle
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– the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
-physiological and psychological state at the time of encoding is associated with the informaiton being encoded -the state in which information is encoded acts as a bridge to that connects the moment of experience to a moment in which we need to remember it -thoughts and feelings associated with information are encoded therefore thoughts and feelings can help retieve information ex opium and cigarettes while studying to increase test results on Thurdsay's test consume opium and smoke ciagrettes... BinGo! |
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State-Dependent Retrieval
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– the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
-similiar states when informtion is encoded make it easier to remember information -same context |
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Transfer-Appropriate Processing
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– the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process information in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later
- if you study in terms of semantics and were tested on who words rhymed ou would remember less than if you depened on rhyme judgemenet -which retrival cue is best is depndent on what retrieval cues are availible in the future |
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Separating the Components of Retrieval
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1. Right frontal lobe shows increased activity when someone attempts to retrieve previously presented information (mental effort)
2. Successfully remembering the past is associated with activation of the hippocampal region as well as sensory regions of the brain associated with the memory |
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Explicit Memory
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– the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences
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Implicit Memory
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– the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them
-memories are not conciously recalled but their presence is implied by our actions |
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Explicit vs. Implicit
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awareness vs unconscious
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Two subtypes of Explicit Memory
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1. semantic
2. episodic |
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Two subtypes of Implicit Memory
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1.Procedural
2.Priming |
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Procedural Memory
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– the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things
-things you remember are automatically translated into action -areas outisde of hippocampal area (including motor cortex) |
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Priming
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– an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus
-produces accurate recall even though their is not conscious link to the information |
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If the hppocampal regions are not involved what areas are responsible for imlicit memory?
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-linked to reduced activities in cortex
-implicit memory makes it easier for parts of the cortex during retrieval |
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Semantic Memory
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– a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
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Episodic Memory
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– the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
-"mental time travel" |
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Seven SIns of Memory
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1. Transience
2. Absentmindedness 3. Blocking 4. Memory misattribution 5. Suggestiblity 6. Bias 7. Persistence |
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Transience
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– forgetting what occurs with the passage of time
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The Curve of Forgetting
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– rapid decline of savings from the time since the original learning that levels off and remains relatively stable after several hours or a day
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Retroactive Interference
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– situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier
--later activities could blend in to distort what happened earlier -new memories interfering with the retrieval with old memories |
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Seven SIns of Memory
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1. Transience
2. Absentmindedness 3. Blocking 4. Memory misattribution 5. Suggestiblity 6. Bias 7. Persistence |
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Proactive Interference
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– situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
-ex hardship in learning new information when it differs from old information |
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Transience
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– forgetting what occurs with the passage of time
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The Curve of Forgetting
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– rapid decline of savings from the time since the original learning that levels off and remains relatively stable after several hours or a day
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Retroactive Interference
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– situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier
--later activities could blend in to distort what happened earlier -new memories interfering with the retrieval with old memories |
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Proactive Interference
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– situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
-ex hardship in learning new information when it differs from old information |
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Retroactive vs. Proactive Interference
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new learning effects recall vs old learning effects new information
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Absentmindeness
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– a lapse in attention that results in memory failure
- divided attention often causes this to happen -Less activity in lower left frontal lobe during divided attention and as activities become more automatic -common in routine activity |
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Prospective Memory
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-remembering to do things in the future
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Blocking
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-– a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
-I beleive that it involves weak retirval cues |
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Tip-of-the-Tongue Experience
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– the temporary inability to retrieve information that is stored in memory, accompanied by the feeling that you are on the verge of recovering the information
-common with names -damage to left temporal cortex associated with name blocking |
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Memory Misattribution
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assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source
-eyewitness misidentification -damage to frontal lobes |
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Source Memory
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– recall of when, where, and how information was acquired
-could be cause of deja vu where similarity is confused for samness -misrepresentation of actual memories in that information maybe correct but context is inaccurate |
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Relationship b/w frontal lobes and Memory Misattribution
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frontal lobes = effortful retrieval = correct source of memory
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False Recognition
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– a feeling of familiarity about something that has not been encountered before
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False Familiarity results in which sin of memory?
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When people experience a strong sense of familiarity about a person, object, or specific event but lack specific recollections, a potentially dangerous recipie for memory misattriution is in place...
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How does activity in the hippocampus differ b/w false and true recolletion?
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-Hippocampus and many of the same cortical regions are active during correct and false recognition
however... -a. Higher activation of previously seen or heard items in their visual and auditory cortices, respectively |
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Suggestibility
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– the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections
-We do not store all the details of our experiences in memory, making us vulnerable to accepting suggestions about what might have happened or should have happened -visual suggestions make for strong suggestibility -recovery of memory maybe be heavily influenced by suggestion therapist use hypnosis and visual imagery which can lead to suggestion |
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How does suggestiblity compare and contrasts to misattribution?
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-suggestions produce inaccurate memories by misattributution but misattribution often occurs in the absence of suggestion
misattribution memory = misunderstanding of source source suggestion = a incorrect memory based on suggestion |
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Bias
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– the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences
-sometimes in accounts of the past one is filtering memory about what happened with what they feel, think and believe now |
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Consistency Bias
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– reconstruction of the past to fit what we presently know or believe
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Change Bias
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– exaggeration of the difference between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past
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Egocentric (Self-Enhancing) Bias
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– exaggeration of the change between the present and past to make ourselves look good in retrospect
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Persistence
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– the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
-PTSD -emotional arousal seems to focus our attention ont eh central features of the event |
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Emotions and Memory
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-emotional experiences tend to be better remembered that nonemotional ones
-Intrusive memories are undesirable consequences of the fact emotional experiences generally lead to more enduring memories |
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Flashbulb Memories
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Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
-not always accurate |
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How does the amygdala effect memory?
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-responds strongly to emotional events
-amygdala effect hormones and increases activity as we experience arousing events -the release of stress related hormones (adrenaline/ cortisol) mobilizes brain and body to face events -these hormones also enhance memory |
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pros of transience
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-forgetting allows for more effcient processing of important information
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pros of absentmindedness
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Solomon Shereshevskii’s mind was clogged with trivia to the point that he was unable to generalize or function abstractly
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Pros of Blocking
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-blocks information not being used from awareness
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pros of memory misattribution / suggestiblity
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-memories allows for lesser improtant information to be forgotten...therefore contextual details may sometimes suffer
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Pros of Bias
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-having a positive illusion about oneself gives one an onverall sense of contentment
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Pros of Persistence
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-remembering threatening and traumatic events provide us a means to prepare for the future dilmenas and are necessary for our survival
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