Psychology History T3

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Active mind

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refers to intelligent self organizing properties of mental processes. Contrasts with the "blank slate" hypothesis encountered in empirical philosophies.

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Analytic a priori

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refers to formal truths in which a predicate completely unpacks a subject. A statement such as all bachelors are unmarried is an example

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Apperception

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historically a term with many meanings, but it commonly refers to mental processes that are more complex than those involved in perception. It implies a high level of awareness and activity of the mind so that relationships are clearly understood. contrasts with mere passive awareness.

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Apperceptive mass

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a term employed by johann friedrich herbart to refer to the goal of education to produce not only knowledge of facts but also a higher level of awareness of relationships.

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autonomy

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a term employed by immanuel kant that refers to self governmentor the ability to act in a moral and repsonsible manner, not to please an autohority but because the individual rcognises the inherent or intrinisic worth of of certain actions.

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Categories of understanding

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an expression employed by kant to refer to inherent ordering principles of the mind that contribute to knowledge. for example kant believed that human beings have intuitive understandings of causality and temporal and spatial relationships.

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commonsense philosophy

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a term referring to the philosophical orientation of philosophers such as thomas reid and his followers. the expression refers to a deeply held opposition to beliefs that are counterintuitive or that do violence to our experience of the world.

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deductive argument

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any argument in which the conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily from the premises.

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Descartes Rene

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founder of modern philosophy. Descartes made extensive original contributions in a great variety of areas. He helped elaborate early scientific methodology, provided rich and often testable hypotheses about the relationships between behaviour and physiology and is regarded as one of the key figures in modern rationalism

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Johann Friedrich Herbart

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first to attempt to quantify mental functions he was also interested in the role of unconscious processes in human life and in the application of psychological studies to clinical and educational problems.

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inductive argument

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any argument in which the conclusion is claimed to be more probable than not given the truth of the premises.

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Immanuel Kant

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remembered for his attempts to reconicle empirical and rational approaches to knowledge. Kant beleived that knowledge begins with experience. Kant believed that knowledge begins with experience but in his view there are meaningful connections in experience itself. Kant also advanced an early theory of moral development and was inteterested in problems associated with nationalism.

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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646-1716)

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German rational philosopher and mathematician who sought ways to reconcile the legitimate claims of monism and pluralism. Leibniz advocated a universal language and a world united by reason and international government. Leibniz and Isaac Newton independently discovered the differential calculus.

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monad

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A term employed by Lcibniz to refer to a principle of existence. Leibniz believed that the world consisted of many independent monads, but all monads are hannonious with all other monads. Thus, for him, there is a real mental world and that world iscompletely harmonious with a real physical or physiological world. Hence, mind and body are both real but completely harmonious and independent.

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petites perceptions

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French term meaning small perceptions used by Leibniz to refer to small perceptions below the level of awareness. Leibniz believed that small perceptions in concert fom] the basis of perception. His concept of petites perceptions represents an early concept of unconscious processes.

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preestablished harmony

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A concept employed by Leibniz to account for the congruence or harmony of different orders of reality. He believed, for example, that mind and body do not influence each other . but they are always congruent. Lcibniz believed that God had ordered the world in such a fashion as to permit the simultaneous and harmonious operation of many independent principles of existence

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rationalism

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A philosophical orientation deriving from the Latin ratio, meaning to reason or think. Rationalist philosophers typically emphasize a priori knowledge, deduction, and the concept of an active mind that selectively organizes sensory data

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Reid, Thomas (1710-1796)

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Leader of Scottish commonsense philosophy that sought [0 reconcile the conflicting claims of empiricism and rationalism

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Spinoza, Baruch (Benedict) (1632-1677

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A key figure in the rationalist tradition, Spinoza sought to demonstrate the artificiality of many of the dualisms introduced by Descartes. For Spinoza, there is no gulf between God and the world or mind and body. He believed that most dualities result from problems of language, but different language systems may simply represent different ways of looking at the same reality.

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synthetic a priori

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According to Kant, a synthetic a priori truth is known intuitively and is informative about the world. Descartes's statement HI think, therefore 1 am" may be regarded as a synthetic a priori truth. The truth of the statement is grasped intuitively, but the statement is not a mere tautology; rather, it is informative about the world.

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unifonnitarianism

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The belief that evolutionary changes on earth occur gradually over vast stretches of time

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Wolff, Christian von (1679-1754)

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German philosopher and author of early books titled Empirical Psychology (1732) and Rational Psychology (1734). WoltI believed in both empirical and rational approaches to psychology, but argued that rational approaches would be more fruitful and lead to the discovery of principles by which the mind operates

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afferent

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In neurology, the term afferent refers to movement inward toward the central nervOUS system.

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Bell, Charles (1774-1842)

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Codiscoverer with Franc;:ois Magendie that spinal nerves are specialized. The ventral root handles motor functions and the dorsal root handles sensory functions.

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Bell-Magendie Law

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The discovery by Sir Charles Bell in England and by Franc;:ois Magendie in France that motor functions are localized in the ventral root of the spinal cord, whereas sensory functions are localized in the dorsal root.

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Broca, Paul (1824-1880)

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A French physician who is remembered, among other things, for his discovery that the anatomical locus for articulate or spoken speech is in a small region of the left frontal lobethe inferior frontal gyrus, subsequently named Broca's area.

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Cabanis, Pierre Jean Georges (1757-1808)

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Argued for a naturaJistic approach to psychological processes such as memory, intelligence, and sensation.

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Jj)escartes, Rene (1596-1650

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French philosopher who is often regarded as the founder of modern philosophy. Descartes made extensive original contributions in a great variety of areas. He helped elaborate early scientific methodology, provided rich and often testable hypotheses about the relationships ! between behavior and phYSiology, and is regarded a~ one of the key figures in modern rationalism.

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efferent

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Refers to neurological activity that moves outward from the central nervous system toward the I muscles and glands.

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FIourens, Pierre Jean Marie (1794-1867

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French ' , physician and neurophysiologist who employed the method of ablation (surgical removal or isolation of specific structures) as a means of establishing the functions perfomled by various parts of the brain.

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Fritsch, Gustav Theodor

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German I 'phYSician and physiologist who, together with ,Eduard Hitzig, established the field of electrophysiI ology. Fritsch and Hitzig were pioneers in the use lot'direct electrical stimulation as a means of estab, IJiShing brain functions.

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belI, Franz Joseph (1758-1828)

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German anatomis!:, phYSician, and pioneer in faculty psychology. G l>elieved that faculties of the mind were 10caJ.ized ISpecific regions of the brain and that welJ-developeil or deficient regions were manifested in Protrusions or indentations on the skulL Gall was the founder of phrenology, the attempt to assess character by examining the shape of the head.

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Galton, .Francis (1822-1911)

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A key figure in the discovery of new qUantitative techniques for the study of behavior. He pioneered many early concepts in statistics including the concept of correlation.

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Golgi, Camillo (1843-1926)

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Italian physician and histologist famous, among other things, for developing a staining technique that made it possible to distinguish fine nervous structures from surrounding tissue. His methods made a singular contribution to the advance of knowledge in neurophysiology

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GUillotin, Joseph Ignace (1738-1814)

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Famous French physician who invented the instrument named after him and used for decapitation.

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Hales, Stephen (1677-1761)

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One of the first to demonstrate clearly a spinal reflex and the dependence of that reflex on the integrity of the spinal cord.

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Helmholtz, Hermann LudWig F'erdinand

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One of the great German scientists of the nineteenth century. Among other contributions, he was the first to measure the speed of Conduction of the nervous impulse.

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Hitzig, EdUard (1838-1907)

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German psychiatrist and neurophysiologist Who collaborated with Gustav Theodor Fritsch to establish the fIeld of electrophysiology. FritSch and Hitzig were pioneers in the use of direct electrical stimUlation to studybrain fUnctions.

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Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679)

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One of the first of the modern philosophers to advance a thoroughgoing mechanistic aCCOunt of human behavior. He also argued that self-interest serves as the primary basis for motivation.

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La Mettrie, julien Offray de (1709-1751)

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French physician whose famous book Man a Machine advanced a deterministic, evolUtionary, and mechanistic approach to human mental processes.

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francois magendie

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Demonstrated that motor functions are handled by the ventral root of the spinal cord and that sensory functions are handled by the dorsal root. Sir Charles Bell made the same discovery, now referred to as the Bell -Magendie Law.

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Muller, Johannes (1801-1858)

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Great pioneer in experimental physiology. Remembered, among other things, for his doctrine of specific energies,which argues that each nerve is highly specialized to carry out one kind of function.

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phrenology

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Literally, science of the mind. A theory developed by Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Kaspar Spurzheim that character and personality traits are related to specific regions of the brain. It was also believed that the surface features of the skull (e.g., protrusions and indentations) can be used as a means of assessing character.

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Quetelet, Jacques (1796-1874

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Early pioneer in statistics who was one of the first to realiZe that there were quantitative procedures applicable to human behavior. He understOOd that there are lawful regularities operating in moral and Psychological arenas earlier regarded as capricious.

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Ramon y Caja), Santiago (1852-1934)

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Spanish phYSiCian, histologist, and anatomist Who discovered the synapse and developed the modern theoryof the neuron.

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Sherrington, Charles (1857-1952)

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Shemngton was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1932 for his monumental work on the integrative action of the nervous system. He laid the foundations for modern work in neurophysiology and coined many of the terms that are common in the field tOday.

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specific energies of nerves

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Early belief that nerves are highly specialized so that they can carry out only one kind offUnction

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Spurzheim, Johann Kaspar (1776-1832)

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A student and disciple of Franz Joseph Gall, Spurzheim helped develop and populariZe the theory of personality and character known as phrenology. Spurzheim developed elaborate chans designed to assess personality via analysis of the shape of the skull.

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statistics

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Literally, characteristics of the state. A branch of mathematics devoted to the study of appropriate means of collecting and interpreting data. A Common focus is on establishing the probability of OCcurrence of a given event.

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Stensen, Nie)s (1638-1682)

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Sometimes known as Nicolaus Steno. He exposed the anatomicalerrors of Descartes by demonstrating that animals have pineal glands and that the pineal body is not richly supplied with nerves. He further argued that, contrary to the predictions of Descartes, the pineal gland could not possibly move from side to side. Such findings dealt a severe blow to Descartes's

Front 51

Swammerdam, Jan (1637-1680

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With a nerve muscle preparation, Swammerdam perfOlmed a series of classic experiments demonstrating that a flexed muscle could not possibly grow larger because of the inflow of animal spirits. swammerdam's demonstrations were contrary to predictions derived from teh theroy of nervous action advacned by descartes.

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unzer; johann august

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first to apply the word reflex to simple sensorimotor functions. also introduced the terms afferent and efferent.

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Carl wernicke

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german neurologist and psychiatrist who discovered the speech comprehension area in the left temporal lobe of the brain

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whytt robert

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first to identify clearly the components of a reflex in terms of the action of a stimulus, resulting in a response.

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Comte de buffon

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one of the great french scientists of the eighteenth century emembered for an early theory of geological evolution that challenged the strict biblical chronology advanced by archbishop ussher. buffon was also one of the first of the modern scientists to offer a theory of organic evolution.

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catastrophic theory

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view of evolutionary change advanced by the french scientist cuvier that earth wrenching catastrophes may have annihilated entire species and that such catastrophes have produced abrupt changes in populations and their characteristics. contrast with uniformitarianism.

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vincenzo chiarugi

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italian humanitarian who instituted reforms in the treatment and care of the menatlly disturbed prior to pinel in france. chiarugi was one of the first to employ psychodrama as a therapeutic tool.

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cosmogony

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the study of the origin of the cosmos or the universe.

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Dagobert cuvier

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french biologist who argued that evolutionary change is often abrupt because it is brought about by great natural catastrophes.

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charles darwin

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modern evolutionary theorist who supported his theory of evolution by a wealth of empirical evidence. darwin and alfred russel wallace also proposed a mechanism for evolution based on natural selection that was aacceptance to a large number of scientists. darwin was also a pioneer in the study of developmental processes in small children.

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erasmus darwin

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grandfather of charles darwin and a member of england's lunar society who argued that natural processes evolve without divine intervention. erasmus' darwin's theory of evolution was based on the concepts of inheritance of acquired characteristics.

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demonology

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Literally, the study of demons, but the term also refers to belief in demons as causal
agents

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Dix, Dorothea Lynde (1802-1887)

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American humanitarian reformer who worked for over forty years on behalf of the insane poor. Dix advocated a therapeutic climate for curable patients and humane living conditions for all patients.

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Galton, Francis (1822-1911)

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Cousin of Charles Darwin and pioneer in the study of individual differences. Galton emphasized the hereditary basis of individual differences.

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Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich (1834-1919)

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German zoologist, one of the first to emphasize the importance of evolutionary theory to psychology.

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heuristic theory

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theory with heuristic value that fosters discovery, learning, and predictive
efficiency.

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inheritance of acquired characteristics

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Belief held by many early theorists such as Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck that acquisitions of parents are passed on to offspring. This explanation of evolutionary change is rejected in mainstream biology at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

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Itard,Jean (1775-1838)

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A French teacher of hearingimpaired individuals and early pioneer in the trainand treatment of mental deficiency

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Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804

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German rationalist who is remembered for his naturalistic account of the origin of the solar system.

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Lamarck, Jean.Baptiste (1744-1829

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French biologist remembered for his early original work on the nature of species and for an early theory of organic evolution based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics.

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Laplace, Pierre Simon Marquis de (1749-1827

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French scientist who advanced an early naturalistic account of the solar system known as the nebular
hypothesis.

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Lyell, Charles (1797-1875)

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Often regarded as the founder of modem geology. His classic three-volume Principles ofGeology presented a vicw of the evolution of the earth marked by the belief that change occurs over vast stretches of time. This view is sometimes called gradualism or uniformitarianism.

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Malleus Maleficarum

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Literally, the Hammer against Witches. A book published in 1486 by Dominican friars Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger that served as a guide for detecting and prosecuting suspected
witches during the Inquisition.

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Malthus, Thomas Robert (1766-1834)

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Author of An Essay on the Principle of population that set forth the hypothesis that populations may outgrow their food supply because food supply tends to increase arithmetically while populations increase
geometrically.

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Mesmer, Franz Anton (1734-1815)

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French physician who proposed a magnetic therapy that allegedly eliminated sickness by restoring magnetic balance inside the body. Although his career was marked by controversy, he pioneered an early form of hypnosis that became known as mesmerism.

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Morgan, Conwy Lloyd (1852-1936)

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English biologist, philosopher, and psychologist who made extensive contributions to comparative psychology. He is remembered for a regulative principle that came to be known as Morgan's canon which states: "In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale."

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naturalism

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The doctrine that scientific procedures and laws are applicable to all phenomena

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natural selection

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A concept employed by Darwin to account for survival and extinction. Darwin believed that in any species population, some variants are, by chance, better adapted to certain niches; other variants may, by chance, be less well adapted, Advantages or disadvantages of parents will be passed on genetically to offspring, Thus, there is a natural selection for survival and extinction.

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nebular hypothesis

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In astronomy, the hypothesis that the solar system evolved from bodies of rarefied gases and dust in interstellar space.

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ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny

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Belief advanced first by Ernst Haeckel that the history of the individual (ontogeny) recapitulates the history of the species (phylogeny).

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Pinel, Philippe (1745-1826)

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French physician and humanitarian reformer who advanced an early modem classification system of mental disorders. Pinel is typically remembered for cleaning up living conditions for those who are mentally ill and advocating therapy instead of eustodialism.

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Preyer, William Thierry (1841-1897

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Pioneer in child psychology whose classic book The Mind of the Child served as a powerful impetus for the study of developmental processes.

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Reil, Johann Christian (1759-1813)

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One of the founders of modern psychotherapy and an early advocate of experimental studies of basic psychological processes.

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Romanes, George John (1848-1894)

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English biologist and Darwinian who helped found a science of comparative psychology. He is often criticized for his anecdotal methods, but he was aware of the problems of anecdotalism and argued for a broad methodology.

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Rush, Benjamin (1745-1813)

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Early American physician who argued for liberal reforms such as the abolition of slavery and of public whippings. His book Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon the Diseases of the Mind advocated humane treatment for mentally ill patients. He understood the value of warm baths, meaningful employment. and a supportive psychological environment as part of the treatment program for patients.

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Sanger, Margaret (1883-1966)

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American reformer decply concerned about women's health issues. She was instrumental in making accurate information about contraception available to the public and was a founder of Planned Parenthood Federation of America

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Seguin, Edouard (1812-1880)

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French pioneer in the study and treatment of mentally deficient individuals Seguin's efforts helped inspire fund-raising for training facilities for mentally deticient people. His work also encouraged the development of scientific studies of basic psychological processes.

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Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903)

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English philosopher who attempted to apply evolutionary thought to all branches of human knowledge. Evolution was thus a unifying principle for his philosophy. He is sometimes regarded as a forerunner of American functionalism.

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Toke, Daniel Hack (1827-1895)

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For many years, the head of the York Retreat in England and a key figure in promoting scientific studies of mental illness and humanitarian treatment of people who arc mentally ill.

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Tuke, William (1732-1822)

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Philanthropist who helped found the York Retreat in England. The York Retreat incorporated the most advanced humanitarian treatment techniques available in its day.

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uniformitarianism

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The belief that evolutionary change is gradual and that most change occurs over vast stretches of time. Contrast with catastrophe theory

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Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823-1913)

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Simultaneously with Darwin, advanced a theory of organic evolution based on the concept of natural selection

Front 93

aesthesiometer

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a compasslike instrument used to measure tactile sensitivity. two points can be stimulated simultaneously. the task of participants is to report whether they feel both points or only one.

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apperception

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In Wundt's psychology, an apperception is an active set of associations marked by intelligent direction within a larger context. A simple associative combination such as sky and blue would be counted simply as a perception. Apperception, by contrast, carries far more meaning. Thus, a statement such as "If the weather is clear in the we will go sailing" denotes an intelligent direction within a context, an apperception.

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average error, method of

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A psychophysical method that permits a participant to manipulate a variable stimulus until it appears to match a standard stimulus.

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constant stimuli, method of

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A psychophysical method in which comparison stimuli are judged against a standard stimulus. Various values of the comparison stimuli above and below the standard stimulus are presented on a random basis. The task of the participant is to specify whether each of the comparison stimuli are equal to, greater than, or less than the standard.

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creative synthesis

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The principle advanced by Wundt that psychical combinations are not a mere sum of elements. Rather, a combination of associations includes new attributes not predictable from the sum of the elements.

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difference threshold

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The minimal stimulus difference that is detectable 50 percent of the time.

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element

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An abstraction referring to a simple irreducible sensation .

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Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1801-1887)

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His Elements ofPsychophysics, one of the great original classics in psychology, set forth a systematic approach to psychophysics. He proposed several early psychophysical methods and helped lay the conceptual and methodological foundations for the new discipline of psychology.

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Fechner's Law

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An integration of Weber's formula expressed as S = k log R, where S is a mental sensation and R is a stimulus magnitude. Thus, according to the law, a mental sensation is a logarithmic function of the stimulus mUltiplied by a constant.

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Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von

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One of the great scientists of the nineteenth century who, along with Thomas Young, advanced a trichromatic theory of color vision. He also advanced a theory of pitch perception and was the first to measure the speed of conduction of the nervous impulse.

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heterogony of ends

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Wundt's position that an ongoing behavioral sequence must often be understood in terms of an ever-shifting pattern of primary and secondary goals. For example, a cat chasing a mouse may suddenly find it necessary to compete with a partner, overcome an unexpected barrier, or avoid a danger. Ends, goals, and purposes keep changing.

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hylozoism

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The view that mind is manifested in all material movement

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just noticeable difference Gnd)

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The smallest detectable difference between a standard stimulus and a comparison stimulus.

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Kraepelin, Emil (1856-1926)

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A student of Wundt. He created an influential classification system of psychiatric disorders and made numerous contributions to psychiatry and psychopharmacology.

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limits, method of

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A psychophysical method whereby a standard stimulus is compared with various values of comparison stimuli presented in both ascending and descending series. The task of the participant is to specify when the standard and the variable appear to be the same. Also called the method of limits because it measured the quantitative limits of the variable stimulus values that appear to be greater than, less than. or equal to the standard stimulus.

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local signs, theory of

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A hypothetical sensory representation by means of which one can detect the position or locus of one part of a sensory surface relative to other points on that surface.

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I,otze, Rudolph Herman (1817-1881)

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Wrote the first treatise on physiological psychology. He also advanced an early theory of space perception

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Maxwell, James Clerk (1831-1879)

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Scottish physicist who demonstrated that he could match any spectral value with various mixtures of red, green, or blue. He thus contributed directly to the YoungHelmholtz theory of color vision.

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opthalmoscope

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An instrument designed by Hermann von Helmholtz for viewing the interior of the eye, especially the retina.

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psychophysics

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The formal study of the relationship between the properties of stimuli as measured by a physical scale and the psychological impressions of those stimuli.

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response c.ompression

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In psychophysics, equal intervals on a physical scale may be experienced as a diminishing series. ilIustrated in the experience of a diminishing series associated with a three-way light.

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Scripture, Edward Wheeler (1864-1945)

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As Wundt's student, Scripture identified four fundamental processes of associations: preparation, inf1uence, expansion, and after-effect. He later had a productive career as a psychologist at Yale University, Clark University, and as a phonetician in Europe.

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sensation

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According to Wundt, an element of consciousness referring to simple awareness of stimulation.

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stereoscope

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An instrument that produces a threedimensional effect by simultaneously presenting slightly different two-dimensional views to the left and right eyes.

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threshold

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That stimulus intensity (or change in intensity) that is detected 50 percent of the time.

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tridimensional theory of feeling

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According to Wundt, a theory of feeling marked by three fundamental directions: pleasure and pain, strain and relaxation, and excitation and quiescence.

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voluntarism

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Technical term for the system of psychology advanced by Wilhelm Wundt. Voluntary behaviors arc those that are varied to meet the demands of varying circumstances.

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Weber, Ernst Heinrich (1795-1878)

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Well-known nineteenth-century physiologist who was the first to establish a quantitative relationship between the physical properties of stimuli and the experience of those stimuli. Weber's book. The Sense of Touch, launched the field of psychophysics.

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Weber's Illusion

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The perception that two points of a compass appear to move apart when the compass is moved over an insensitive area of the skin. By contrast, the two points appear to move together when the compass is moved over sensitive areas of the skin.

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Weber's I,aw

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First quantitative law in psychology expressed as l1R1R = K where R = the amount of existing stimulation, M =the amount of stimulation that must be added to produce a just noticeable difference, and K = a constant.

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Witmer, Lightner (1867-1956)

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One ofWundt's students. Founded the first psychological clinic and coined the expression clinical psychology.

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Wundt, Wilhelm Maximilian

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The founder of the first psychology laboratory that functioned for a sustained period of time. Wundt also advanced the first systematic vision of psychology known as voluntarism. He is also the tirst person who, without qualification, can be thought of as a psychologist. His Principles of Physiological Psychology is one of the great classics in the discipline. More than any other, he can be viewed as the founder of modem psychology.

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Young, Thomas (1773-1829)

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English physiologist who formulated the trichromatic (red, green, blue) model of color vision. He speculated that retinal structures must therefore be specialized for color primaries.

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Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

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Young's theory that color vision is produced by separate receptor systems on the retina that are responsive to primary colors (red, green, and blue-violet). Maxwell and Helmholtz supported Young's theory in the nineteenth century.

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act psychology

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A system of psychological thought advanced by Franz Brentano emphasizing the forward-looking, intentional, planful character of experience. Brentano strongly rejected the simplistic characteristics of many of the early systems of psychological thought.

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afiect (affection

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According to Titchener's early theory, affections are the elementary mental processes associated with emotions. Later, he viewed affections primarily as sensations of pleasantness or unpleasantncss.

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attributes of elementary mental processes

Back 129

According to 11tchener. elementary processes such as sensations include four attributes: quality, intensity. clearness, and duration.

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Brentano, Franz (1838-1917)

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Founder of a system of psychological thought known as act psychology. Brentano emphasized a developmental and pluralistic methodology and the active, participatory, creative, and intentional characteristics of mental life

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context theory of meaning

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According to Titchener, meaning depends on context or the association of a stimulus with other relevant surrounding stimuli.

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desire

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According to Brentano, a way of being conscious of an object marked by attraction or repulsion.

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Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

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A curve demonstrating that forgetting of nonsense material is rapid immediately after learning. After an initial rapid decline, the rate of forgetting slows down.

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Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1850-1909)

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One of the great pioneers in psychology, remembered for developing the nonsense syllable as a means of studying memory experimentally while minimizing past associations. Also developed an early form of a completion test and argued for the legitimacy of pure and applied psychology. element An abstraction referring to a simpl

Front 135

element

Back 135

An abstraction referring to a simple irreducible sensation

Front 136

imageless thought

Back 136

Belief that there are objective meanings in experience that are not associated with specific words, symbols, or signs.

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introspection

Back 137

A species of observation, but the subject to be observed is in experience itself. Thus, introspection is a kind of "looking in" to identify elements of experience and the way these elements combine, or the processes and adaptations of experience

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James-Lange theory of emotion

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A theory of emotion advanced independently by William James and Carl Lange. The theory emphasizes the somatic substrate of emotional experiences and argues that the experience of emotion is the experience of the activity of the body-thus, the famous statement: We see a bear, we run, and we are afraid. James's later vision of emotion emphasizes constitutional determinants and the impossibility of separating cognition and emotion.

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judgment

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According to Brcntano, consciousness of an object marked by belief or disbelief.

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Kiilpe, Oswald (1862-1915)

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Student of Wilhelm Wundt and well-known founder of an early psychological laboratory and school of thought at Wurzburg. KuIpe's experiments on imageless thought challenged the simplistic characteristics of other early systems.

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mental set

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Predisposition to respond in a given manner or tendency to organize an event in terms of an existing bias.

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MUller, Georg Elias (1850-1934)

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Prominent German psychologist remembered for his work in psychophysics, memory, learning, and vision. Numerous early psychologists studied with Muller at the University of Gottingen.

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presentation

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According to Brentano, consciousness of an object marked by simple awareness of the presence of the object.

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primary attention

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According to Titchener, primary attention is involuntary and typically activated by a sudden or strong stimulus.

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secondary attention

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According to Titchener, secondary attention is learned and persists under difficult conditions (e.g., staying alert while studying even under noisy circumstances).

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structuralism

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A system of psychological thought associated primarily with Edward Bradford Titchener, who attempted to model psychology after the more mature sciences, especially chemistry. Structuralism employed the method of introspection to search for the elements of consciousness and the rules by which elements combine.

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Stumpf, Carl (1848-1936)

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Student of Brentano and pioneer in the psychology of music. His holistic orientation focused on meaningful mental phenomena rather than arbitrary elements of consciousness

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system

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An organized way of envisioning the world or some aspect of the world

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Titchener, Edward Bradford (1867-1927)

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One of Wilhelm Wundt's best-known students and founder of a system of psychological thought known as structuralism. Titchener was a dominant force in U.S. psychology from the early 18908 until his death in 1927.

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Washburn, Margaret Floy (1871-1939)

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First woman to eam a doctorate in psychology and the second female president of the American Psychological Association. Washburn made significant contributions to the study of comparative psychology and wa~ well known for her "motor theory ofconsciousness

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James Rowland Angell

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a powerful advocate of the functionalist viewpoint in Us psychology. He argued that psychology should emphasize mental operations rather than the stuff of experience. his book psychology and his classic article the province of functional psychology are important expositions of functionalism.

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Harvey Carr

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the thirty fifth president of the american psychological association carr helped consolidate and amplify the functionalist viewpoint in psychology. at the university of chicago he headed a powerful department of psychology that was one of the most prolific in Ph.D production

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Mary Whiton Calkins

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first woman president of the american psychological association who argued for a reconciliation of structuralism and functionalism. advanced a personalistic psychology in which the self is the primary focus of study.

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James Cattell

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A prominent leader in the U.S> Functionalist tradition. though he published little, he established a laboratory at columbia university and headed a strong dfepartment in that institution. cattel served as editor of numerous journals and magazines. through his efforts psychology became more visible in the public consciousness and in the scientific community. he also advanced the cause of applied psychology, most notably by founding the Psychological corporation .

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Dewey, John (1859-1952

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U.S. psychologist and philosopher and a key pioneer in the functionalist school of thought. Dewey argued for a processoriented psychology emphasizing the study of adaptation. He argued against the concept of elements, whether they be units in consciousness or in the reflex.

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functional autonomy

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Refers to the idea that the means for satisfying a motive may acquire drive properties. Thus, one might hunt to satisfy hunger, but later hunting acquires drive properties of its own and one now hunts for "sport."

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functionalism

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A loose-knit system of psychology having its origin in the work of U.S. scholars such as William James, John Dewey, and G. Stanley Hall. Functionalism emphasized a broad-based methodology applied to basie and applied problems associated with experience and behavior

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Hall, Granville Stanley (1844-1924)

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Pioneer U.S. psychologist and founder and first president of the American Psychological Association. Hall also founded several journals and served as president of Clark University. One of the first developmental psychologists, Hall was the author of such classic books as Adolescence and Senescence.

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Hollingworth, Leta Stetter (1886-1939

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Psychologist and educator who was one of the first to subjeet gender differences to rigorous experimental scrutiny. Her work exposed several nineteenth-century myths regarding the intellectual status of women. She is also remembered for pioneering studies on gifted children.

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james, William (1842-1910)

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U.S. psychologist and philosopher who was the author of several classics in both fields. James's two-volume Principles of Psychology is one of the most influential books in the field. His Varieties ofReligious Experience and Talks to Teachers are pioneering efforts in the psychology of religion and educational psychology. His philosophical pluralism, pragmatism, and radical empiricism are still deeply imprinted in U.S. psychology and philosophy.

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james-Lange theory of emotion

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A theory of emotion advanced independently by William James and Carl Lange. The theory emphasizes the somatic substrate of emotional experiences and argues that the experience of emotion is the experience of the activity of the body-thus, the famous statement We see a bear, we run, and we are afraid. James's later vision of emotion emphasizes constitutional determinants and the impossibility of separating cognition and emotion

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Lange, Carl Georg (1834-1900)

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Danish physiologist remembered for a theory of emotion comparable to one proposed by William James and subsequently known as the James-Lange theory. See also James-Lange theory ofemotion.

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material self

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In James's theory, the material self is the body, friends, and possessions such as clothing, house, automobile, and so on.

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Miinsterberg, Hugo (1863-1916)

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German American psychologist and a pioneer in applied psychology with his research on forensic, clinical, and industrial psychology.

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pluralism

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A philosophical position that emphasizes the importance of alternative perspectives (methodological pluralism) and the existence of many realities (metaphysical pluralism) .

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pragmatism

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A U.S. philosophical movement associated with the work of Charles S. Pierce and William James. According to pragmatism, concepts must be judged in terms of their cash value or the practical work they do in the world. Thus, truth is judged by utility and the practical consequences achieved by an idea.

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primary memory

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According to William James, primary memory is memory associated with nerve vibrations that have not yet ceased. It is memory associated with the specious present, what is immediately held in consciousness, and somewhat akin to an afterimage.

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radical empiricism

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The name William James employed to characterize his larger philosophic vision. Radical empiricism emphasizes the primacy of experience and argues that things genuinely encountered in experience must not be excluded from philosophical and scientific inquiry. Radi c empiricism treats various monisms as hypothesses.

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secondary memory

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in james' psychology, secondary memory is memory proper or memory of past events that are not in present consciousness.

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self-esteem

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a topic explored by william james and discussed in his work as a function of the ratio of success to pretensions

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social self

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in james' view, a dimension of selfhood born in various social contexts. Thus, the self in the presence of a parent may be differnt in some respects that the self in the presence of a friend.

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spiritual self

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In James's view, the self that is "the home of interest" or that sits in judgment of other selves. The spiritual self, for James, is also the source of effortful striving.

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stream of thought

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A concept advanced by William James that illustrates his view that consciousness is not composed of static elements. According to James, even a strong stimulus, such as a clap of thunder, is not pure; rather, it is "thunderbreaking-upon-silence-and-contrasting-with-it." James regarded consciousness as ever changing; each successive thought, even of the same object, changes by some degree

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Sumner, Francis (1895-1954)

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A pioneer in the study of black psychology and the first African American to earn a doctorate in psychology in the United States.

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variability hypothesis

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A commonly held nineteenthcentury belief that, in all things physical and mental, men are more variable than women. The research of Leta Stetter Hollingworth effectively dismantled the variability hypothesis

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Woodworth, Robert Sessions (1869-1962

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A pioneer psychologist in the functionalist tradition who greatly extended the domain of experimental psychology. Woodworth was one of the first U.S. psychologists to emphasize the centrality of motivation. His text Experimental Psychology may be the most important classic in the field.

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Wooley, Helen (1874-1947

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American psychologist who emphasized practical social problems in her research on educational psychology.

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Descartes

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He believed that knowledge could start with the data of sensory experience – experiences play a key role in the initial stages of inquiry
He was a rationalist who:
-emphasized innate ideas
-postulated a priori truths
-preferred deduction
He cautioned exercising care when conducting experiments:
an experiment is only a special form of observation that can be poorly conceived and thus result in misinformation

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Descartes

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The four parts of his method are as follows.
Never accept anything as true unless it is clear, distinct, and immune from doubt.
Divide all difficulties into as many parts as possible.
Start with the easiest and simplest elements and then proceed to the complex.
Keep complete notes and comprehensive reviews so nothing is omitted.
Descartes started with doubt.
He could not, however, doubt that he was doubting.
He maintained that because he was doubting he was thinking, and
because he was thinking he was existing
Therefore, he concluded, “I think, therefore I am.”
After establishing his own existence, he accepted clear and distinct sense experience, and then he can proceed to rely on his experience in his research.
Descartes postulated a non-extended mind that is qualitatively different from the physical body.

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Baruch Spinoza

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Spinoza argued for a monistic pantheism.
There is only one substance, God.
Descartes had presented qualitative distinctions between mind and body, sacred and secular, and humans and animals.
Spinoza challenged Descartes’s dualisms, particularly the means by which qualitatively different substances such as mind and body

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Benedict Spinoza

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Challenged Descartes – how could a non-physical mind be causal with respect to a physical substance and how does interaction take place at the pineal gland?
Mind and body are not radically different but are two aspects of the same fundamental reality – human nature, and, ultimately God.
Mental processes are seen as part of the natural order – the human mind is part of nature and is subject to nature’s laws

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Benedict Spinoza

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Spinoza advocated double-aspect monism.
Even if humans use different languages to discuss the mental and physical worlds, the mental and physical are only two aspects of the same reality, God.
These two aspects of humans move in response to natural laws.
There is no room for free will.
Spinoza’s thoroughgoing monism prohibits powers separate from God.
Therefore, he denied the existence of demons.
Spinoza may have helped challenge the intellectual foundation of the inquisition.

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Gottfried Leibniz

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Leibniz proposed a monadology.
This was a system in which indivisible units of existence (monads) moved in parallel in a preestablished harmony without interacting.
Though monads do not interact with one each other, they may combine in experience.

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Gottfried Leibniz

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Refer to a principle of existence or an ultimate unit of being
It is a unit or entity harmonious with the entire universe
Monads are not causal with respect to each other
Multiple monads exist and function in parallel fashion

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Gottfried Leibniz

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Leibniz argued for uniformitarianism.
He claimed that change is gradual and takes place over long periods of time.
Mind-body parallelism
-can be an appealing, practical solution for psychology as it avoids the tangled difficulties of interactionism yet embodies the two realities of human nature

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Leibniz

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Disagreed with Locke and Aristotle on the importance of sensory experience
Intellect is an inherent property of the mind
All monads are invested with energy
The mind is active and involved in all cognitive processes
Mind actively constructs knowledge

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Immanuel Kant

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Immanuel Kant sought a middle ground between empiricism and rationalism.
Kant distinguished between analytic a priori statements that are tautologies and synthetic a priori statements that contain new information about the world.
Kant believed that knowledge begins with sensory experience.
But, the mind uses innate categories of understanding to make our experience intelligible.
Kant provides a basic social psychology.
He argued that humans are caught in the tension between heteronomy (government from the outside) and autonomy (self-government).
Self-government plays a role in our ability to act in a moral manner.

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Immanuel Kant

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Analytic a priori truths – formal truths in which the predicate completely describes the subject
Synthetic a priori truths – are not trivial and refer to universal realities –e.g.,
-”I think, therefore I am”

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immanuel Kant

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Believed that knowledge begins with sensory experience – but would be meaningless without the existence of certain a –priori categories of understanding
These are ordering principles which help make sense of the data of sensory experience
They include our notions of time, sequence, space, causality

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Immanuel Kant

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Heteronomy: Governed from the outside
Manifested by goodness based on authority, rules, rewards and punishment
Autonomy: Refers to self-government and the ability to act in a moral manner
Kant believed that moral actions are based on our regard for other human beings as ends rather than as means (altruism?)

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JOhann Friedrich Herbart

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Johann Friedrich Herbart took a psychological approach to educational problems.
He attempted to quantify phenomena in psychology.
Herbart studied apperception, mental operations more complex than sense perception,.
He claimed that the goal of education was to build the apperceptive mass.
Education, for Herbart, must also be moral education.

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Thomas Reid

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Thomas Reid advocated common sense philosophy.
He rejected any philosophical positions that were counter-intuitive or did violence to human experience of the world.
He was frustrated with the counter-intuitive claims of Berkeley and Hume.
Reid argued for first principles, propositions that could not be doubted without violating common sense.
For example, one first principle requires the belief in the external world.

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Rationals and Empiricists agreed on ?

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They both acknowledged the importance of enfranchising curiosity and letting inquiry run its course.

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Thomas Hobbes

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Mechanism emerged as a philosophical perspective.
Thomas Hobbes argued that the subject matter of philosophy is the motion of physical bodies.
He used a mathematical method in the rationalist tradition.
He was a nominalist in that he advocated the use of reason to provide names and classification systems.
Hobbes was also a thoroughgoing materialist.
He argued that God is a material being.
Hobbes believed that human nature was self-serving.
Humans can suppress these urges largely through fear of the state.

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Thomas Hobbes

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Sensations and thoughts are to be understood in terms of motions in the sense organs and brain
“Feelings of pleasure and pain also result from alterations in the vital motion of the body”
Psychological processes depend on the physical substrate – reduced philosophy to the study of bodies in motion
Physical science could be used to study psychological processes

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Rene Descartes

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René Descartes was interested in the problem of movement in physical bodies.
He endorsed a hydraulic model of movement.
Human and animal bodies are complex machines.
Descartes argued that the ventricles of the brain stored animal spirits.
Movement was enabled when animal spirits flowed down a nerve pipe to the muscle.
The muscle then inflated with animal spirits and stimulated movement.
The flow of animal spirits was regulated by small threads that opened valves in the ventricles in response to an environmental stimulus.

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Descartes

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Descartes argued that the mind-body interaction particular to humans takes place in the pineal gland.
He proposed the following claims regarding the pineal gland.
The pineal gland is found only in humans.
The pineal gland is richly supplied with nerves.
The pineal gland can move freely from side to side.
Additionally, Descartes provided the following testable hypotheses for future researchers.
Muscles are literally inflated by animal spirits.
The muscular system is tied to the ventricles of the brain, the source of animal spirits.
Nerves have both sensory and motor functions.
Nervous transmission is extremely fast.

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Jan Swammerdam

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Jan Swammerdam tested Descartes’s hypothesis that muscles are inflated by animal spirits flowing from the brain.
He demonstrated that a frog muscle can contract even if separated from the frog’s brain.
He also demonstrated that a muscle can contract even if cut.
According to Descartes, the cuts would allow the animal spirits to leak out.
He demonstrated that muscles do not inflate when they contract.
These findings all cast serious doubt on Descartes’ simplistic, mechanistic views

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Neils Stensen

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Neils Stensen (1638-1682) questioned Descartes’s assertions regarding the pineal gland.
He argued that the pineal gland cannot swing from side to side.
He demonstrated that the pineal glad is not richly supplied with nerves.
He located the pineal gland in non-human animals.
He advocated a more careful and detailed cataloging of anatomical parts and greater conservatism when assigning functions to anatomical structures

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Stephen Hales

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Stephen Hales (1677-1761) established the importance of the spine in the reflex.
He demonstrated that a decapitated frog could exhibit reflexes if the frog’s spinal cord was intact.
Robert Whytt (1714-1766) replicated the work of Hales and more thoroughly studied the role of the spinal cord in reflexes.

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Robert Whytt

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He drew distinctions between voluntary and involuntary actions and actions based on habits
which he felt were somewhere in between the two
Involuntary actions included digestive processes, coughing, sneezing, blushing, salivation, heart action, respiration and pupillary reactions to change in light
He concluded that there was an adaptive nature to some reflexes, like the pupillary reflex which has been dubbed Whytt’s reflex

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Johann August Unzer

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Johann August Unzer (1727-1799) provided a systematic framework for the reflex action.

He was the first to use the terms “reflex,” “afferent,” and “efferent.”
“afferent” means moving toward the CNS while “efferent” means moving away from the CNS
Unzer applied his theory to the practical questions of pain and the guillotine.
Was one of the first to address issues related to pain experience
He concluded that reflexes may be the same in decapitated and intact humans and animals
Reflexes in decapitated organisms are unconscious and purely mechanical
Conscious experience of pain depends on brain activity

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Julien De la mettrie

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His book “l’homme machine” described human beings as mechanical machines
He argued that mental events depend on bodily phenomena
He saw the brain as a machine that processes ideas in purely mechanistic fashion
La Mettrie’s work (although extreme) represented the logical extension of Descartes’ animal-machine model and further facilitated the movement towards a mechanical-quantitative approach to the study of human nature

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Pierre Cabanis

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Psychological processes like memory, intelligence and sensation are products of neurological activity
After de la Mettrie and Cabanis, researchers explored the nervous system for its own sake and as a way of explaining psychological phenomena

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Nervous system

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The Bell-Magendie Law reflected the discoveries of the localization of function of afferent and efferent roots of the spinal column.
Sir Charles Bell established the motor functions of the spinal cord.
François Magendie demonstrated the sensory root of the spinal cord.
Johannes Müller (1801-1858) argued for further localization of function.
He proposed the doctrine of specific nerve energies.
He argued that qualities of the nerve caused the qualities of perception within a given sense.
He argued that a nerve is only capable of transmitting one type of sensation.
Müller’s work was extremely influential for the trichromatic color theory of Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz.

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Phrenology

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Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) and Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832) launched a productive false start in the form of phrenology.
Phrenology became a popular approach to mind in Europe and the United States.
The main premises are as follows.
Mental functions are localized within the brain.
The surface of the skull conforms to the relative development of brain tissue related to the specific faculty under that area of the skull.

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Pierre Flourens

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Pierre Flourens (1794-1867) studied brain function through lesions of specific areas of brain tissue.

He found evidence of some localization of function

-located respiratory functions in the medulla oblongata
-cerebellum mediates muscular coordination
-cerebrum governs perceptual and cognitive functions

He also demonstrated neural plasticity

-he concluded that the brain functions as a whole and shows an “action commune”
-select brain regions could take over for other injured parts in a recovery of function (within certain limits)

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Language areas of brain

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Paul Broca (1824-1880) argued that motor coordination of spoken language was not localized where the early phrenologists claimed
He established Broca’s area with an autopsy of an individual with aphasia
Damage to Broca’s area produces expressive aphasia or loss of articulate speech
Carl Wernicke (1848-1905) identified the area of the brain related to language comprehension (dubbed Wernicke’s area)
He showed that damage to the superior portion of the temporal lobe interferes with speech comprehension
While these findings cast further doubt on phrenology, they did give credibility to the notion of localization if function
These findings demonstrated that when it comes to language, the brain is highly specialized.

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powers of observation

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The X-ray, the microscope, and other tools, enabled researchers to extend the powers of observation in neuropsychological research.
Gustav Theodor Fritsch and Julius Eduard Hitzig initiated research in electrophysiology.
They demonstrated localization of motor functions.
Camillo Golgi created a staining procedure.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal described the synaptic gap by using Golgi’s staining procedure.

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powers of observation

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Sir Charles Sherrington published The Integrative Action of the Nervous System.
He demonstrated the complexity of neural action.
He coined many of the terms used in neuroscience.
Hermann von Helmholtz measured the speed of a nervous impulse.
Neural impulses were surprisingly slow.
His success fueled optimism about the power of science.

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Quantification

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Jacques Quételet is relevant to the history of psychology in two primary ways.
He argued that human behavior is subject to the laws of nature.
He was able to mathematically relate external factors and human behavior.
Quételet studied both physical traits and moral or psychological qualities and noticed that the distributions were very similar.
Quételet is responsible for the idea of the homme moyen, the average man.
Quételet’s data reinforce the importance of the study of development ,individual differences, and the relevant differences between people in various places on the normal curve.

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Francis Galton

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Sir Francis Galton pioneered new statistical techniques was Darwin’s cousin
He applied measurement to a wide variety of topics including the following.
the efficacy of prayer
the heritability of physical and psychological traits.
Later in his life, he applied these interests to the field of eugenics.

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Francis Galton

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His most important discoveries were in the areas of regression and correlation, both of these concepts growing out of his interests in heredity
He used scattergrams to characterize the relationship between the heights of parents and the heights of their adult children
He was the first to use the term “co-relation” and he contributed to the mathematical characterization of correlations
He was the first to use the term “median” – an important concept in the measurement of central tendency
He also made extensive use of the term “percentile”

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Practical applications of quantification

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Measurement techniques were used to justify racial and gender prejudices by quantifying apparent differences in intelligence and abilities.
Florence Nightingale used statistical data to examine medical records.
She was the first to use graphs to illustrate her arguments.
Dorthea Lynde Dix used descriptive statistics in her campaigns to improve conditions for the mentally ill.

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Naturalism

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Naturalism is the doctrine that scientific procedures and laws are applicable to all phenomena.
Evolutionary theory influenced science as a whole, including biology and psychology.
Evolutionary Theory has roots in ancient Greece and Eastern sources.
Evolution is part of the larger question of cosmogony, the study of the origin of the cosmos.

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Evolutionary Theory

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Evolutionary theory affected many scientific domains.
The evolution of the solar system has been a topic of speculation since the transition away from geocentrism.
Kant and Laplace advocated an early version of the nebular hypothesis.

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Evolutionary theory

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George-Louis Leclerc, known as Comte de Buffon was one of the first to argue for geological evolution.
Theological authorities forced him to recant.
Sir Charles Lyell, often regarded as the founder of modern geology, published Principles of Geology.
Lyell advocated uniformitarianism instead of catastrophe theory.
Evolutionary ideas emerged in other areas of intellectual discourse, including language and the history of ideas.

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Evolutionary Theory

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The emergence of theories of organic evolution has been a slow process.
The process continues today.
Significant impetus for theories of organic evolution came from difficulties within Christian creation theory.
Comte de Buffon suggested that humans and apes may have common ancestors.
Erasmus Darwin argued that plant life developed before animal life and that all animals evolved from the same organic material.
He accepted the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Jean-Baptiste Lamark promoted progressionism.
He also proposed the inheritance of acquired characteristics as the mechanism of evolution.

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Evolutionary Theory

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Charles Darwin was asked to join the voyage of the Beagle to examine life in and around South America.
After his return, Darwin read the work of Thomas Malthus.
Darwin presented evolution by natural selection in a joint presentation with Alfred Russel Wallace.
Darwin was the first to publish the ideas in 1859 in his classic Origin of Species. Darwin also argued the following ideas.
All changes that become fixed happen in this way.
All changes occur by imperceptible gradations
All changes arise originally by chance.

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Evolutionary Theory

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Evolutionary theory was significant for psychology in a number of ways.
Evolutionary psychology provided the grounds for comparative psychology.
Conway Lloyd Morgan advocated his principle of parsimony to limit anthropomorphic explanations.
Decisions regarding Morgan’s Canon must balance the precision orientation and the richness orientation.
Following Darwin, researchers delved into the study of development across the lifespan.
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel was one of the first to argue that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. Herbert Spencer sought to build philosophical, psychological, and scientific explanations around evolutionary theory.

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Emotional Disorders

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Naturalistic approaches to emotional disorders emerged slowly.
Naturalistic approaches to mental disorders met resistance.
The earliest naturalistic approach was that proposed by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen
2000 years later it was making a comeback
Why did it take so long?

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Demonology

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In the Renaissance, views of mental illness were based in demonology.
The Witches’ Hammer, the Malleus Maleficarum, was commissioned to curb the spread of witchcraft.
The Malleus was divided into three parts:
the classification of devils and witches and the reconciliation of witchcraft and God’s omnipotence,
the methods by which devils and witches influence the world and the means of combating their influence, and
judicial procedures for trying witches.

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Demonology

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Mental disorders were viewed as the result of voluntary collaboration with a devil or the curse of a witch.
Treatments paralleled these diagnoses.
Witch hunts and witch trials were widespread throughout Europe.
Tens or hundreds of thousands of people were executed for witchcraft.
Approximately 85% of victims were women.
The trial procedures were written to maximize the likelihood of a conviction.
Torture was often used to elicit a confession.

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Diagnosing Witches

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“pricking” involved:
-sticking a pin in a witch until a spot was found on her body that was insensitive to pain or did not bleed
-such a “spot” was regarded as the point thru which a devil had gained access to a person’s body and rendered them possessed

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Diagnosing witches

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Denials were interpreted as cover-ups and an obvious sign of guilt
Strong emotional reactions were also signs of guilt
The “floating vs. sinking” test
The “ability to weep” test
The presence of birthmarks, growths, scars, moles on any part of the body
Any of the above could lead to execution and did!

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Witches

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The demise of witchcraft as an explanation for mental illness was slow.
This remains a work in progress.
Johann Weyer argued that witches were actually suffering from mental illness.
Baruch Spinoza believed that devils did not exist because there was nothing other than God.
Descartes’s mind-brain relationship left no room for demons to work on human minds.

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Humanitarian reform

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Humanitarian reform grew as a movement across society and psychology.
The movement to reform the treatment of the mentally ill took place in the context of a larger reform movement that included the following.
Universal education
Improved sanitation
Abolition of slavery
Equality for women.

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Mental Illness

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The reform encouraged the treatment of people with mental illnesses as humans.
Franz Anton Mesmer believed that the magnetism affected a magnetic fluid in the body that controlled health and disease.
Although barred from practicing medicine in Vienna, Mesmer’s flamboyant style was well received in Paris.
King Louis XVI convened a panel of experts who concluded that magnetism was not an effective treatment.
Hypnotherapists would return to methods of suggestion as a form of therapy, but Mesmer’s career was destroyed.

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Philippe Pinel

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In France, Philippe Pinel led reform of the treatment of the mentally ill.
He experimented with new methods of humanitarian treatment and rewards based on appropriate behavior.
Pinel classified mental disorders into five major categories:
Melancholia,
mania without delirium,
mania with delirium,
dementia, and
idiotisme.
Pinel argued that mental disorders were caused by the individual’s environment and lifestyle.
Pinel was one of the founders of moral therapy, a precursor to psychotherapy.
This included talk treatment.

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Benjamin Rush

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Strong advocate of social and humanitarian reform
Improved education for woman
National university system with emphasis on practical curricula
Protested the use of punishment in controlling behavior
Reformed inhumane prison conditions
Protested against corporal punishment in schools and homes

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Benjamin Rush

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Benjamin Rush is recognized as the first American psychiatrist and author of the first psychopathology textbook in America.
Rush argued that all psychopathology was the product of physiological processes, primarily in the circulation of blood through the brain.
His therapies reflected his perspective.
Rush coined the word “phrenology.”
His belief in the connections between mind and body paved the way for future physiological psychologies.

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Benjamin Rush

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In 1811 he diagnosed Mary Reynolds with MPD
Gave us the first clinical descriptions of other dissociative states as well
Conducted the first medical studies on the effects of alcohol
Saw alcoholism as a disease – involved both addiction and progressive deterioration
Also used “suggestion” and “imagination” as clinical tools to treat mental disorders

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Reform for mental illness

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Reform in other places continued to accelerate.
William Tuke and his great grandson Daniel Hack Tuke ran the York Retreat in England.
Vincenzo Chiarugi instituted humanitarian reform in Italy.
He was one of the first to employ psychodrama in treatment.
In Germany, the reformer Johann Christian Reil interpreted mental illness as a failure in psychological unity.

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Johann Reil

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Conceived of mental illness as due to failure in psychological unity
This failure could result from either physical or socio-psychological disturbances
His therapeutic interventions included psychodrama, occupational therapy,
music therapy, and the development of socially acceptable means of expressing emotion

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Dorothea Dix

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Reform became a social movement in America with the work of Dorthea Lynde Dix.
Dix started her work by changing conditions for the mentally ill at the East Cambridge jail.
She then expanded her efforts to the entire state of Massachusetts and then to the country as a whole.
Dix recognized physiological, psychological, and sociological contributions to mental illness.
She argued that psychological disorders are the offspring of civilization.
For Dix, treatment should include good diet, exercise, amusement, and meaningful occupation.

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Jean Itard

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In 1799, a 10-year old boy was found in the woods by three hunters
Displayed the characteristics of a wild animal
Pinel diagnosed him as an incurable idiot
Itard disagreed and worked with the boy for 2 years trying to “educate” him
Boy become more docile and responsive to the environment
Was able to understand many words
Could engage in useful tasks
It was not possible to teach him how to speak

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treatment for retards

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Reform of treatment of people with mental deficiencies paralleled the reform of the treatment of the mentally ill.
Prior to the modern era, demonology was believed to be the cause of disabilities.
Children with disabilities were referred to as changelings.
Jean Itard’s pioneering work with a wild boy near Aveyron led to improvements in the boy’s behavior.
Edouard Seguin developed a systematic approach to teaching individuals with mental deficiencies

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Women's reform

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Women’s reform movements fought against sexism in religion, education, employment, property rights, and voting rights.
Margaret Sanger devoted herself to women’s health issues and to publishing information on safe and effective means of birth control.
Sanger argued that birth control was necessary for women for their health.
She argued for equal standing in society.
She contributed to the intellectual context for health psychology and the study of human sexuality.

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Psychophysics

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Psychophysics is the study of the relationships between the properties of stimuli and the psychological impressions of those stimuli.
Early researchers in psychophysics studied thresholds.
Upper and lower absolute thresholds were operationally defined as the minimal or maximal stimulus intensity that is detected 50 percent of the time.
Researchers also investigated difference thresholds, the minimal stimulus difference that is detectable 50 percent of the time.
Researchers studying two-point thresholds in the skin senses developed the aesthesiometer.
Psychophysicists pioneered the quantification of certain mental processes.
They demonstrated lawful relationships between physical stimuli and the psychological impressions of stimuli.

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Ernest Weber

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Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795-1878) studied the sense of touch.
He demonstrated that different locations on the body have different two-point thresholds.
Weber’s Illusion refers to the illusory experience of two points when they are moved over insensitive or sensitive areas of the skin.
Weber pioneered research into difference thresholds, seeking the just noticeable difference (jnd) between stimuli in a variety of modalities.
He formulated Weber’s law to describe the relationship between physical and experienced differences.

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Ernest Weber

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Jnd = the smallest detectable difference between the standard stimulus and a comparison stimulus in different sensory modalities

Developed a key formula to describe the relationship

Delta R =k
R



Delta R = the amount of stimulation that must be added to produce a jnd
R= the amount of the existing stimulus
k= a constant

The constant for weights was shown to be .02.
Therefore what would be the jnd needed to detect a difference between two weights, one of which is 300grams?

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Gustav Fechner

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Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) struggled throughout his life with the mind-brain problem.

He wrestled with his night view of extreme materialism and his day view of panpsychism.
He wrote his day view under the pseudonym of Dr. Mises.
Fechner reformulated Weber’s law as a log relationship called Fechner’s law.
Fechner developed new methodologies in psychophysics.
The method of limits
The method of constant stimuli
The method of average error
His methods are still taught in experimental psychology programs.

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Fechners law

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Developed a new equation to describe the relationship between the physical world and sensory experience

S = klogR

S = the mental sensation
k= a constant
R= Reiz or stimulus magnitude

This equation states that the strength of a mental sensation is a constant logarithmic function of the stimulus
As the mental series increases mathematically, the stimulus series increases geometrically

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Methods of limits

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Consists of presenting a standard stimulus along with a variable (or comparison) stimulus of greater and lesser value than the standard
The comparison stimuli are presented in “ascending” and “descending” series
At each series, the E can assess the point at which a difference is no longer detected, or the point at which the difference is first noticed
The average of several ascending and descending series defines the jnd

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method of constant stimuli

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method of right and wrong cases
Comparison stimuli are coupled with the standard stimulus in random fashion
The subject’s task is to report whether the comparison stimulus is equal to, greater than, or weaker than the standard
This variable technique avoids habituation errors common in Method of Limits

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method of average error

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Subject manipulates a comparison stimulus until it appears to match a standard
The difference between the standard and comparison stimuli is measured
By conducting several such comparisons, you can calculate the “average error”

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Experimental physiology

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Rudolph Hermann Lotze wrote the first book in physiological psychology.
He pioneered work in the perception of space and depth.
Hermann von Helmholtz was an innovator in physics, physiology, and psychology.
He rejected vitalism and argued that psychological phenomena are physical in nature.
He conducted extensive research in visual perception.
He developed new methodologies and new instruments.
The ophthalmoscope.
He argued that infants learn about their sensory worlds through extensive experience and unconscious inferences.
He developed the stereoscope and studied depth perception and binocular vision.
His ideas joined with the work of others in the development of the trichromatic theory of color vision.
He did pioneering work in the physics, physiology, and psychology of auditory perception and music.

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Wundt

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Wilhelm Wundt receives credit for the formal founding of psychology in 1879 at the University of Leipzig.
His tremendous scholarly productivity was critical for the success of the new discipline.

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Wund's mind body

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He rejected Descartes’ interactional dualism
He rejected extreme positions of hylozoism – the view that “mind” is manifest in all material movement
He believed that the origin of mental processes dated to the origin of life itself
The lower limits of mental function are illustrated in movements that have a voluntary basis
Mental and physical processes are both known in experience – psychology is not in a position to explain the metaphysical basis of either process
Wundt believed in the unity and interdependence of mental and physical processes (double-aspect monism?)

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Funding of psychology - voluntarism

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The name Wundt preferred for his system of thought was Voluntarism.

Wundt’s laboratory work employed a rigorous introspection.
His larger vision is broader, including methods such as naturalistic observations, archeological methods, and historical approaches.
Wundt emphasized psychological causality, flexible goals and means, and adaptability.
Voluntary behavior, for Wundt, does not imply free behavior.
He argued that some free will is possible through reflective self-consciousness.
Wundt agreed with Darwin’s ideas of adaptation, but Wundt placed far greater emphasis on psychological adaptation.

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Voluntarism

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Affirms that the world of experience is central in understanding humans
We need to study the ideas that accompany voluntary acts
These ideas explain psychical causality
Voluntary actions adapt in a flexible manner to changing circumstances
Human behaviors are purposeful and goal directed –there is a meaning behind them

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Wundt's laboratory work

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Wundt’s laboratory work is one phase of Wundt’s larger psychological perspective.
Wundt’s laboratory work involved rigorous approaches to modest problems in physiological psychology and sensation and perception.
He emphasized precise measurement.

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Early work of wundt

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Did research on different types of reflex action and came to the following conclusions:
Some reflexes were faster than others
Lowering body temperature increases the magnitude of the reflex and slows it down
Simultaneous stimulation of neighboring nerves had mixed effects on reflex activity-either excitatory or inhibitory effects. He demonstrated the critical role of inhibitory processes in the CNS
Ordered voluntary behavior is based on a mix of excitatory and inhibitory processes
He speculated that inhibition plays a central role in adaptive and voluntary behaviors

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Definition of psychology

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Psychology is the science that investigates the “facts of consciousness”
Psychology has two goals:
1. to discover the elements of consciousness
2. to discover the combinations the elements undergo and the laws that regulate combinations
He referred to a combination of elements as a “psychic compound”

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Voluntarism

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Some key concepts in Wundt’s psychological system follow.
Wundt defined psychology as the science that investigates “the facts of consciousness.”
Psychology must discover the elements of consciousness.
Then psychology must discover possible combinations of elements.
An element, in Wundt’s psychology, was a simple sensation.
Wundt defined sensation as an element of consciousness and perception as a combination of outward sense impressions.
An idea referred to combinations that may arise from memory, early associations, and other sources.
He questioned the distinction of ideas and perceptions.

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ASsociation and Apperception

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Passive combinations of elements are associations
Active combinations are apperceptions
Mere rote memory vs. memory with real awareness
Apperception has cognitive activity with intelligent direction and inner unity
He criticized British associationism for failing to recognize this difference

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Emotions and wundt

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Some key concepts in Wundt’s psychological system.
_ he believed that feelings were important as they are related to complex psychological processes such as apperception, memory, and cognition
Wundt argued for a tridimensional theory of feeling involving pleasure and pain, strain and relaxation, and excitation and quiescence.
Certain sensations result in specific feelings
Feelings (anger, fear, joy, hope) have a valence and are tied to a particular cognitive content
Wundt’s cognitive psychology embraced feelings!

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creative synthesis

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There is real novelty and creativity in higher mental processes
“the fact that in all psychic combinations, the product is not a mere sum of the separate elements that compose such combinations, but it represents a new creation”
Constructivist approach to cognition

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Heterogeny of ends

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Demonstrates the principle of creative synthesis
When new motives for behavior emerge from a certain chain of events
The interplay of motives in our immediate experience defines our social behavior as well as our cognitive reaction to the world
There can be a changing motivational structure attached to old habits
Wundt’s psychology correctly identified the dynamic aspect of motivation

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Legacy of wundt

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Emil Kraepelin advanced a theory of schizophrenia based in Wundt’s system and argued against psychoanalysis.
Kraepelin also argued against psychoanalysis.
Lightmer Witmer applied Wundt’s ideas to pain and to the special learning problems of children with mental disabilities.
He opened the first clinic run by a psychologist.
He was the first to see scientific psychology as the basis for a helping profession.

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Systems

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A system is an organized way of envisioning the world or some aspect of the world.
Psychological systems have the following characteristics.
Systems provide definitions of psychology, major terms, and concepts.
They include assumptions about major issues.
They prescribe acceptable methodologies.
They specify the subject matter of psychology.
A system may be open or closed to new sources of information.
Systems differ in their views of time.
Systems vary along a liberal-conservative continuum.

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Structuralism

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Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927) transported Wundt’s research perspective to the United States as Structuralism.
The subject matter of psychology is experience.
The problem of psychology involves the questions What, How, and Why.
The method of psychology is systematic introspection.
Despite his narrow laboratory work, he viewed the scope of psychology in broader terms.
He started with investigation of elementary mental processes, primary the study of the senses.

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Introspection

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Is the type of observation to be employed by psychologists
Requires special training
Scientific observations must be able to:
-be isolated
-varied experimentally
-be repeated
He was adamant that psychology follow the path of a laboratory science

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mental elements

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Mental elements which are related to sensation
Images: elements of ideas, memories, thoughts
Affections: elementary processes of emotion
Four key elements to sensations:
-quality, intensity, clearness, duration

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attributes of elements

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Quality: what defines its uniqueness
Intensity: the degree or strength of a stimulus
Clearness: transparency or distinctiveness
Duration: temporal attribute
These attributes are also associated with affections

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Titchener mind body

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Titchener argued that the mental and physical worlds are two aspects of the same world.
He called this view psychophysical parallelism.
His view was closer in perspective to double aspect monism.
They cannot influence each other because they are not separate and independent things
Adopted a more pragmatic view on this issue as he was more interested in enabling psychology to study more practical things like…

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Attention titchener

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He differentiated between primary (involuntary) vs. secondary (voluntary) attention
Primary attention: compelled to give and powerless to prevent
Triggered by strong stimuli
They can also be sudden and novel stimuli
Even infants are capable of primary attentio

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SEcondary attention titchener

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A focus on a stimulus (or subject) that would not normally call attention to itself
Can involve attention under challenges, difficulties, distraction, etc.
It is associated with more advanced stages of development
His lab investigated the duration and effort of attention, the inertia of attention, and bodily conditions conducive to it

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Association titchener

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Principles of association are key to psychology
He emphasized association by contiguity
Feelings also play a role in association but he was not sure about their role
He tentatively proposed that feelings play a role in association by “virtue of their sensory and imaginal components, and not in their affective character”
Associations must be understood in the context of impressions that result from the fact that some stimuli have a unique capacity to impress themselves o the brain
He also advocated for the study of the physiology of associations

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Theory of meaning Titchener

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Meaning is understood as a function of the laws of attention in combination with the laws of the connection of sensations
An aggregate of sensations will also be supplemented by images that result from memories of previous encounters with the particular aggregate of sensations
This group of sensations and images “has a fringe, a background, a context; and this context is the psychological equivalent of its meaning”
He did not feel there was a need to posit distinct mental content based on a combination or synthesis of parts

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Emotion james lange

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James-Lange Theory was a popular view of emotion at the time
This theory states that emotions depend on the vasomotor system
We experience emotions because of bodily events that interpose between one mental event and another
These bodily reactions include muscular arousal, discharge of adrenaline, increased heart rate, etc.
The theory appeared paradoxical as it contradicted commonsense notions of emotions like fear

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titchener's criticism of james lange

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Was very critical of the theory for several reasons
The posited bodily changes are often identical in very different emotions
The mere sensations of physical conditions hardly compare with the richness and complexity of emotions
The experience of emotion must have multiple causes

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Structuralism

Back 273

Titchener argued against the James-Lange theory of emotion.
He suggested that some inborn tendencies are automatically laden with affect.
He argued that affect is also affected by environmental context and organic conditions.
For him, sentiments are more complex than emotions.
Sentiments may include discrimination, critical functions, and other factors.
Titchener distinguished between emotion and affect.
Affect may be nothing more than sensations of pleasantness or unpleasantness.

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Magaret Washburn

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Margaret Floy Washburn was Titchener’s first graduate student
She took a strong evolutionary stance.
She was a leader in comparative psychology.
She proposed a “motor theory of consciousness.”
She argued that animal consciousness is a topic for psychology.
Washburn was an important model for women in psychology and science in general.

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motor theory of consciousness

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Mental activity has its origin in, and is supported by, subtle neurophysiological movement
Muscular movements appear to support ongoing mental activity and purposive behavior has a motor or muscular component
If the movement is interrupted, the behavior and its goal can change

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Brentano

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Franz Brentano (1838-1917) formulated Act Psychology.
Act Psychology was an alternative to Structuralism and other theories.
Brentano advocated an empirical psychology rooted in the active nature of experience.
Brentano viewed psychology as “the science of mental phenomena.”
Experienced phenomena are real and follow yet-to-be discovered lawful patterns
Psychology need to elucidate these laws
Brentano embraced a pluralistic and dynamic approach to method.

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act psychology

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Brentano differentiated between inner observation and inner perception.
He developed a classification system for mental phenomena.
Phenomena were viewed as part of three intertwined categories:
presentations, judgments, and desires.
Brentano’s influence comes through his system but also through his teaching.
His teaching influenced figures in Gestalt Psychology, Functionalism, and Existentialism, among others.

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Brentano's appraoch

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Inner observation (or introspection) is impossible as we cannot observe psychological phenomena that way
We perceive inner events by focusing attention on the immediate past and on the flow of events
Thus retrospection is involved in inner perception
All sciences, including psychology, must revolve on memory
We retrospect about those things that just took place, the things that precede them, and the perceived consequences
We can know about the inner state of others only through verbal reports and behavior (observation)

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brentano's classifcation of mental phenomena

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Presentations: a basic even or presence in experience
Judgment: involves belief/disbelief and helps define our relationship with a presentation
Desire: further defines our relationship with an object
These 3 types of mental phenomena are intertwined
believed in the unity of consciousness and in the existence of a self in possession of experience
The self ties past and present together along with intentions about the future

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Stumpf

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Carl Stumpf was a disciple of Brentano.
He protested reductionism.
He emphasized the holistic nature of experience.
He contributed to a broad collection of research areas in psychology.
Emotion, the mental life of children, perception of space
a holistic approach to musicology
He believed that psychology should study mental life using an empirical approach
He viewed mental life as having a dynamic, holistic nature

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Stumpf On mental processes

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Held a holistic view that all aspects of consciousness are connected and perceivable as a unity
The attributes of sensation (that Titchener) form a whole rather than being a simple aggregate of parts
He also studied the mental life of children and came to similar conclusions

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Wurzburg school ( KULPE )

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Oswald Külpe (1862-1915) and the Würzburg school of thought provided another alternative to Wundt.
Külpe and others worked on higher mental operations.
They explored imageless thought and challenged reductionistic approaches of Titchener and Wundt.
Students studied mental set.
Külpe was open to a wider view of psychology.
He argued for the study of psychogenesis, the study of the development of mental phenomena.

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imageless thought

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Idea that posits the existence of objective meanings in experience that are not associated with specific words, symbols or images
We can come to understand terms and/or concepts that do not have associated sensations or images in our mind – Freudian concepts of ego, id, superego
What mental image is associated with words like
“ontology”, “evolution”, or “epistemology”?
Thought develops even in the absence of sensations and images

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mental set

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The mind’s predisposition to respond in a given manner
He found that when subjects were given a mental set to look for a specific stimulus dimension, they barely noticed other elements of the stimulus
The mental set is a powerful concept that accounts for a great deal of the variation in the way people see the world and solve problems
Is also related to focused attention
His most famous student was Max Wertheimer, the founder of Gestalt psychology

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Ebbinghaus

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Hermann Ebbinghaus broadened the scope of psychology with his scientific approach to memory.
Memory had been viewed as inaccessible to scientific inquiry.
Throughout his work in memory and mental testing, he argued for methodological eclecticism.
He developed the completion test to assess the cognitive abilities of children.
Ebbinghaus inspired scientific research in memory when he demonstrated predictable effects of initial encoding of material to be recalled, duration of storage, and forgetting.

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ebbinghaus

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Studied “new” memories as they developed from start to finish
He recognized that previous associations contaminate the speed of learning and developed the concept of “nonsense syllables” in an attempt to control for the effects of prior learning
He found that 7 syllables was the longest series that could be recited correctly after I repetition

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Functionalism

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Embraced a process orientation
rooted in becoming.
Other psychologies accepted static elements of experience and a being approach.
Functionalism is difficult to define.
Functionalists emphasize the importance of how questions in addition to what questions.

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William james

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William James brought psychology to the US.
James’s work was extremely broad
-Covered many different facets
General characteristics of James’s thought:
He took a strong individualistic perspective rooted in individual experience.
He advocated multiple levels of analysis,
There is not one correct level of analysis.
Jamesian pluralism had several implications for his psychology.
He denied that there is a primary or foundational content area in psychology.

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Individualism

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Individualism
-circumstances shape the individuals and they act on the world and shape it in ways that reflect the unique contribution of each individual
-James made extensive use of biographies and case studies to document the importance of the individual
-the experience and reality of the individual cannot be easily separated – both need to taken seriously

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multiple levels of analysis

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Posited the existence of different levels of analysis in understanding human nature – molecular, biological, psychological, sociological and philosophical
Believed that biological/physiological correlates to behavior were just one such level – he was not reductionistic
Subjective experience is metaphysical and must be understood in its own right
aspects of human nature cannot be understood using only one level of analysis

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PLuralism

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We should use a variety of methodologies to study psychology
We should focus on different content areas within psychology- learning, sensation, emotion, thought, pure, applied
He even advocated examining the psychology of religion and paranormal phenomena

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william james

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General characteristics of James’s thought:
Free will as found in experience.
Moralistic psychology and philosophy.
He was willing to tell the reader what to do.
Radical empiricism.
Philosophical discussion should be limited to and include all things found in experience.
Monism should be regarded as a hypothesis.
Pragmatism was a method, a theory of truth, and a way of thinking about the world.
Theories should be judged by the work they do in the world.
Words, theories, concepts, and such are “instruments, not answers to enigmas”

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free will

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Held different views on this issue
Determinism is more consistent with monism, whereas belief in free will (even in a limited sense) is more consistent with pluralism
Freedom of will is not easily achieved –it can only be attained through “effortful living”

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radical empiricism

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Experience is the ultimate reality
The world is in constant “process”
There is no vantage point that points to all the truths
The vantage points are themselves in flux
We must accept that there are provisional and practical truths that are subject to change
Psychology has to accept this reality and study the change processes

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pragmatism

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Proposes provisional concepts and methodologies which require constant scrutiny and re-appraisal
Theories, beliefs, views should be judged by the work they accomplish in the real world
No theory (or belief) is an absolute transcript of the real world

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William James

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James defined psychology as “the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and of their conditions.”
James defined habit as essential to the individual and to civilization.
James saw experience and thought as a stream.
James described the self as the totality of all those things that belong to us.
The material self is comprised of what we physically own.
The social self is a plurality of selves for different social situations.
The spiritual self is a personal, subjective, and intimate self that sits in judgment of the other selves.
Self-esteem is the ratio of our success to our pretension.

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Habits

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Human beings acquire habits through learning
Habits have a physiological basis and require actual practice
Have a functional basis
Goal of education is to instill good habits
Individual’s success/failure is dependent on this goal
One should exercise (practice) productive habits and try to decrease the expression of old, dysfunctional habits
Is this early behaviorism?

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Stream of thought

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Psychology must focus on thoughts (not sensations) and their complexity
Thoughts have 5 characteristics:
1. personal and owned – they are your unique thoughts
-primary vs. secondary personal lives
-secondary – represent the unconscious?
2. thoughts are constantly changing
-experience of constancy is an illusion that may result from mental phenomena like inattention

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stream of thought

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3. thoughts are continuous and cannot be meaningfully divided into separate parts
4. human thought conveys a sense of something other than itself – it is “cognitive”
-it represents an outer reality
-it’s representational, schematic, conveys objective meaning
5. thought displays a selectivity, discrimination, choice, shifting focus and interest
All these qualities of the stream of thought need to be studied

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Self

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The different parts of the self engage intensions and rivalries (conflicts?)
Self esteem = success/pretension
The greatest obstacles to learning/growth are lifted by lowering our pretensions
James asked…”what is the nature of personal identity and the sense of continuity that runs through the present self and reaches forward and backward?”
He concluded that for the time being psychology must contend itself with a functional definition and approach to self

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William James

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James promoted the James-Lange theory of emotion.
Experience of emotion is the experience of the activity of the body.
This theory was widely criticized by everyone including the structuralists
The key points to remember about James’ view on emotions are the interdependence of affect and somatic sensations
He later also proposed a connection between cognition and affect
These views probably paved the way for modern day theories of emotion that emphasize the interaction of physiology, cognition, and behavior in defining affect

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instinct

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Present in many organisms including humans
There is a “transiency” to instincts
An instinct is “ripe” for only a brief period of time- there is an optimal moment for attaching an instinct to an appropriate stimulus
This optimal moment of readiness has clear implications for learning and for educators
Instincts are important in early development and less important across the lifespan

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memory

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Primary vs. secondary memory
Primary refers to memories from the immediate past or events that have recently been in consciousness
-closely related to afterimages
Secondary refers to knowledge of previous events that are not currently part of thought or attention
Secondary memory has 2 important components: retention, reminiscence (recall)
Applauded the work of Ebbinghaus
James believed that memory is facilitated by quality of organization, interest, active repetition
Individuals appear to have different gifts for different kinds of memory stimuli – visual, auditory, tactile, etc.

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James' legacy

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Under his leadership, the methodological, conceptual, and substantive boundaries of psychology expanded
He recognized the multi-faceted nature of the human psyche
He had a more realistic views of thoughts and their key characteristics
His work on the habits pre-dated behaviorism
He views on more were more comprehensive
His emphasis on utility and functionality helped pave the way for a more applied psycholog

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hugo munsterberg

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Hugo Münsterberg presented a psychology tuned to the daily lives of humans.
He greatly broadened the scope of applied psychology.
Psychology and law
Psychotherapy
Industrial psychology

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G stanley hall

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Upon completion of his doctoral studies at Harvard, he went to Europe where he studied under Ludwig, Helmholtz, Wundt
He became the first president of Clark University
Shaped the psychology program at Clark into one of the most significant in the US
He made significant contributions in creating the structures and organizations that define psychology today

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G stanley hall

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G. Stanley Hall founded the APA
Founded several journals
Directed the Ph.D. of Francis Sumner, the first Black psychologist
Authored numerous books and scholarly articles.
Hall brought Freud and Jung to the United States in 1909, introducing American psychologists to psychoanalytic thinking
His department at Clark produced numerous Phd’s

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Hall's psychology

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Was centered on development across the lifespan including: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, senescence
Wrote the first psychology text on the subject entitled “Adolescence” (1904)
He advocated a developmental-evolutionary approach to psychology that gave a more concrete expression to some of James’ views
He campaigned for institutes devoted to broad-based studies of children
These institutes should study growth norms, language development, special disease of children, juvenile crime, educational techniques, etc.

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Hall legacy

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His work in the child-study movement met a great public need and elevated the visibility and status of psychology
His early pioneering work paved the way for the continuing emphasis on childhood later in the works of such people as Binet, Freud, Piaget

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university of chicago

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The University of Chicago was a center of Functionalism.
John Dewey criticized reductionistic approaches to psychology.
He argued that experience must be understood in a naturalistic context.
His areas of interest included democracy, economics, schools, art, and the nature of learning.
James Rowland Angell defined functional psychology as “the identification and description of mental operations rather than the mere stuff of mental experience.”
He argued that a functional approach must include social and biological contexts
He advocated the study of the contributions of mental events to our adjustment to the world.
Harvey A. Carr argued that psychology is primarily concerned with mental activity, including both experience and behavior.
Carr employed a variety of methods.
He viewed psychology as broad in scope.

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Columbia university

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Psychology at Columbia University was also functional.
James McKeen Cattell initially developed mental tests.
Unfortunately, his tests were not correlated with anything
Cattell’s career as an editor was more fruitful.
He edited Science as well as numerous other prestigious journals.
He helped to bring psychology into mainstream science.
Robert Sessions Woodworth expanded experimental psychology.
Functional Autonomy refers to the idea that a means for satisfying a motive may acquire drive properties.
Dynamic psychology emphasized the importance of understanding the causes of behavior.
Woodworth also influenced psychology through his textbooks.
In his texts, he clarified the notion of the experiment and separated it from correlational work.

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Mary calkins

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Mary Whiton Calkins completed an informal doctoral program at Harvard.
She was denied her doctoral degree because of her gender.
Calkins defined psychology as the science of the conscious self.
Her emphasis on the self continued the tradition of personalism.
Calkins developed the paired-associate method to study memory.
She conducted one of the first formal studies of dreaming.

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LEta hollingworth

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The growth of applied psychology continued in functionalism.
Leta Stetter Hollingworth empirically challenged the variability hypothesis, the belief that men are in all ways more variable than women.
Hollingworth also demonstrated that the abilities of women are not affected by the menstrual cycle.

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helen wooley

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Helen Wooley applied psychology to the study of gender differences.
She studied the consequences of dropping out of school.
Despite inconclusive results, Wooley was a pioneer in the fields of childhood education and welfare.

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alfred binet

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Alfred Binet developed the first usable tests of intelligence.
His goal was to identify schoolchildren who may need extra assistance or advanced teaching.
Lewis Terman brought Binet’s intelligence tests to the United States.
He published the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
To place army recruits during World War I, Robert M. Yerkes developed the Army Alpha and the Army Beta tests of intelligence.

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evaluation of functionalism

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An evaluation of functionalism.
Weaknesses
The system did not last in any organized fashion.
It seems vague.
Thinkers are only loosely connected
Researchers focused more on applied than basic research questions.
The eclecticism makes it difficult to make a clear statement of functionalism.
Current psychology in America may be regarded as functionalist due to
Its problem-focused eclecticism, and
Its applied nature.