Psychology Final Exam Spring 2009 Part Iii

Front 1

In operant conditioning, any stimulus that increases the probability of a response through its removal. For example, when a rat pressing a lever (operant behavior) results in stopping an electrical shock, or when you pound on your neighbor's wall (operant behavior) results in the termination of loud noise in the neighbor's room.

Back 1

negative reinforcement

Front 2

A process of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows it – for example, behavior that is followed by reinforcement is likely to be repeated. An organism learns to associate its own behavior with consequences.

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operant conditioning

Front 3

In operant conditioning, a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time -- for example, a ratio or interval schedule. Behaviors that are acquired on partial instead of continuous reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but are much more resistant to extintion.

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partial reinforcement schedule

Front 4

In operant conditioning, any stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of the response.

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positive reinforcement

Front 5

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive or need (such as hunger, thirst, or sleep).

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primary reinforcer

Front 6

A procedure in which the presentation of a stimulus following a response leads to a decrease in the strength or frequency of the response.

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punishment

Front 7

In operant conditioning, any procedure where an event following a specific response increases the probability that the response will occur.

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reinforcement

Front 8

In operant conditioning, any response contingent event that leads to an increase in the probability, or strength, of the response.

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reinforcer

Front 9

The rule that determines the relationship between responses and reinforcement. See also fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable ratio schedules.

Back 9

schedule of reinforcement

Front 10

A learned association between two conditioned stimuli (CS2—CS1) that can occur following conditioning to CS1 and an unconditioned stimulus (US).

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second order conditioning

Front 11

Stimulus that acts as a reinforcer by virtue of its association with one or more primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcer. Also known as a conditioned reinforcer.

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secondary reinforcer

Front 12

In operant conditioning, a technique (also called successive approximation) in which responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs.

Back 12

shaping

Front 13

In classical conditioning, the spontaneous reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place.

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spontaneous recovery

Front 14

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals.

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variable interval (VI) schedule

Front 15

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is provided after an average of a specific number of responses occur.

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variable ratio (VR) schedule

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Learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior. Also known as observational learning.

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modeling

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Learning by observing others. Also referred to as modeling.

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observational learning

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Theory that emphasizes the role of observation in learning.

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social learning theory

Front 19

Meaningful arrangement of letters that provides a cue for recalling information; a mnemonic device.

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acronym

Front 20

Sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific information; a mnemonic device.

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acrostics

Front 21

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

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automatic processing

Front 22

Process of grouping items into longer meaningful units to make them easier to remember.

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chunking

Front 23

Mnemonic device involving grouping items into categories.

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clustering

Front 24

System for remembering that involves using mnemonic devices; it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal.

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elaborative rehearsal

Front 25

In memory, the process of perceiving information, then categorizing or organizing it in a meaningful way so that it can be more easily stored and recalled.

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encoding

Front 26

An apparent vivid recall for an event associated with extreme emotion or uniqueness, such as the assassination of a president or the destruction of the World Trade Center.

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flashbulb memory

Front 27

System for remembering that involves repeatedly rehearsing information without at­tempting to find meaning in it.

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maintenance rehearsal

Front 28

Phenomenon wherein recall of particular events, experiences, or information is aided by the subject being in the same context or physiological state in which the information was first encoded. The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

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mood-congruent (state-dependent) memory

Front 29

First system in the three-system model of memory, in which brief impressions from any of the senses are stored fleetingly, disappearing within a few seconds if they are not transferred to short-term memory.

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sensory memory

Front 30

Immediate recollection of stimuli that have just been perceived; unless it is transferred to long-term memory, information in this memory system is usually retained only momentarily. Also called working memory.

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short-term memory (STM)

Front 31

Process by which encoded material is retained over time in memory.

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storage

Front 32

How memories are recorded in the brain. An increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

Front 33

Recall of specific facts, such as information read in a book. Contrast with procedural memory.

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declarative memory

Front 34

The third memory system in the three-system model of memory.

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long-term memory (LTM)

Front 35

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

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memory

Front 36

Memory system, such as clustering or acrostics, that organizes material in a meaningful way to make it easier to remember.

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mnemonic device

Front 37

Term used to describe the phenomenon that the first information we receive about a person often has the greatest influence on our perceptions of that person.

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primacy effect

Front 38

In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when earlier learning disrupts memory for later learning.

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proactive interference

Front 39

Recall for how to perform skills such as bicycle riding or swimming. Contrast with declarative memory.

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procedural memory

Front 40

Process by which information stored in memory is accessed.

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retrieval

Front 41

In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when a later event interferes with the recall of earlier information.

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retroactive interference

Front 42

Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.

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serial position effect

Front 43

One of the two factors in Charles Spearman’s conceptualization of intelligence that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

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general intelligence (g-factor)

Front 44

A hypothetical construct which is operationally defined as what intelligence tests measure. The construct is commonly understood to include the abilities to think rationally and abstractly, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. Myers' definition: The mental abilities needed to select, adapt to, and shape environments. It involves the abilities to profit from experience, solve problems, reason, and successfully meet challenges and achieve goals.

Back 44

intelligence

Front 45

A measurement of intelligence derived by dividing an individual’s mental age by the chronological age, then multiplying by 100.

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Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Front 46

In IQ testing, the chronological age of children who on the average receive a test score similar to that of the subject. For instance, a six year old whose composite score is equivalent to that of a nine year old has a mental age of nine.

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mental age

Front 47

Standard that reflects the normal or average performance of a particular group of people on a measure such as an IQ test.

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norm

Front 48

In L. L. Thurstone’s theory of the structure of intelligence, the separate and measurable attributes (for instance, numerical ability) that make up intelligence.

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primary mental abilities

Front 49

In testing. the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.

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reliability

Front 50

(1) Uniform and consistent procedures for administering and scoring tests (such as IQ or personality tests) and (2) defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group."

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standardization

Front 51

In testing, the ability of a test to measure accurately what it is supposed to measure.

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validity

Front 52

Intelligence test developed by David Wechsler with verbal and performance sub-tests grouped by aptitude rather than age level.

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Front 53

The idea that a physiological need, such as hunger or thirst, creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

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drive-reduction theory

Front 54

Any external stimulus that can motivate behavior even when no internal drive state exists.

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incentive

Front 55

Innate patterns of behavior that occur in every normally functioning member of a species under certain set conditions.

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instincts

Front 56

Any condition, such as a need or desire, that energizes and directs behavior

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motivation

Front 57

One of the theories of motivation that states that we need certain levels of stimulation, and we are driven to explore our environment and the need for sensory stimulation.

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arousal theory / sensation-seeking motive

Front 58

A desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard.

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achievement motivation

Front 59

Complex psychosocial motive to accomplish difficult goals, attain high standards, surpass the achievements of others, and increase self-regard by succeeding in exercising talent.

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need for achievement (nAch)

Front 60

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

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Cannon-Bard theory

Front 61

An individual’s subjective feelings and moods. The term applies to both physiological and behavioral responses involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

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emotions

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The theory that explains emotional states (such as fear) resulting from an organism’s awareness of bodily responses to a situation, rather than from cognitions about that situation.

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James-Lange theory

Front 63

A theory of how we experience emotion that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

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two-factor theory

Front 64

In Freud's theory of psychosexual development, the period between about 18 -36 months, during which the pleasure zone shifts from the mouth to bladder and bowel elimination; coping with demands for control.

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anal stage