Psychology Final Exam Spring 2009

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The major professional organization of psychologists in the United States.

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American Psychological Association (APA)

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Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

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applied research

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Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

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basic research

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The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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behaviorism

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Area of specialization involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems.

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clinical psychology

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Approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which organisms process information. Investigates processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and creativity.

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cognitive psychology

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Field of specialization in psychology concerned with the study and application of learning and teaching methods, focusing on areas such as improving educational curricula and training teachers.

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Educational psychology

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The view that (1) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (2) science flourishes through observation and experimentation.

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empiricism

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Field of specialization concerned with creating optimal relationships among people, the machines they operate, and the environments they work in. Sometimes called human factors psychology.

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Engineering psychology

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Field of specialization concerned with assessing the effects on behavior of environmental factors such as noise, pollution, or overcrowding.

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Environmental psychology

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Field of specialization in which the primary activity is conducting research.

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Experimental psychology

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Field of specialization that works with the legal, court, and correctional systems to develop personality profiles of criminals, make decisions about disposition of convicted offenders, and help law enforcers understand behavioral problems.

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Forensic psychology

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Historical approach to psychology that emphasized the functional, practical nature of the mind. Influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection, attempted to learn how mental processes, such as learning, thinking, and perceiving, helped the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

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Functionalism

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Area of specialization concerned with the interaction between behavioral factors and physical health.

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Health psychology

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Approach to psychology that emphasizes the role of free choice and our ability to make conscious rational decisions about how we live our lives.

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humanistic psychology

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Field of specialization concerned with using psychological concepts to make the workplace a more satisfying environment for employees and management.

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Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology

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A research technique that involves careful observation of one’s own reactions to a stimulus. Historically associated with Structuralism.

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introspection

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A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medication as well as psychological therapy.

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psychiatry

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The scientific study of the overt behavior and internal mental processes (thoughts and emotions) of humans and other animals.

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psychology

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Field of specialization that uses mathematical techniques and computer science to aid in understanding human behavior.

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Quantitative psychology

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Field of specialization concerned with evaluating and resolving learning and emotional problems.

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School psychology

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Historical approach to psychology that attempted to break down experience into its basic elements or structures, using a technique called introspection, in which subjects report their perceptual experiences.

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Structuralism

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The longstanding question of the relative contributions of genetic endowment and experience to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

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nature-nurture issue

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A research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

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case study

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Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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critical thinking

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The experimental factor (in psychology, the behavior or mental process) that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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dependent variable

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An experiment procedure in which both the research subjects and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about which subjects have received the treatment or a placebo.

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double-blind procedure

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A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors.

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experiment

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The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Contrast with control condition.

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experimental condition

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The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the treatment.

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control condition

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The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

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hindsight bias

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A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

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hypothesis

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An explanatory variable which is not directly observable, rather it is inferred from measurable behaviors. For example, the concepts of intelligence and motivation are used to explain phenomena in psychology, but neither is directly observable.

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hypothetical construct

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The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

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independent variable

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The research method of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations, such as a subject’s home or school environment, without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

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naturalistic observation

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Definition specifying the characteristics that are used to measure or observe a variable. Precise statements of the procedures (operations) used to define independent and dependent variables, such as a definition of obesity specifying a certain weight-height relationship.

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operational definition

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Portion of the nervous system that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system. Consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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All the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for study.

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population

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Researchers randomly assign research participants to the the experimental and control conditions of experiments in order to minimize any pre-existing differences between the groups.

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random assignment

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Sample group of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures.

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random sample

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Sample in which critical sub­groups are represented according to their incidence in the larger population that the researcher is studying.

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representative sample

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Selected segment of a larger population that is being studied in psychological research.

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sample

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Careful observation of events in the world, the formation of predictions based on these observations, and the testing of these predictions by manipulation of variables and/or systematic observation.

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scientific method

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Research method in which a representative sample of people are questioned about their behaviors or attitudes.

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survey

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A tentative logical framework to explain the facts scientists have observed regarding certain phenomena.

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theory

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A weakness in correlational studies caused be the fact that a correlation between any two variables may be caused by an unknown third variable.

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third variable problem

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A research method in which representative samples of people of different ages are compared with one another.

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cross-sectional study

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A research method in which the same people are restudied and retested at different times over many years.

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longitudinal study

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Tendency of an observer to read more into a situation than is actually there or to see what he or she expects to see.

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observer bias

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A neural impulse generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. A brief electrical charge that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters. See also resting potential, graded potential.

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action potential

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The level of stimulation that must be exceeded in order for a neuron to fire, or generate an electrical impulse. An action potential will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. The neuron either fires or it doesn't fire; the strength of the electrical impulse does not vary according to the degree of stimulation. See also, graded potential.

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neuron threshold (all-or none law)

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The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Consists of the sympathetic nervous system (which arouses tne body) and the parasympathetic nervous system (which calms the body).

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autonomic nervous system

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The extension of a neuron that transmits an impulse from the cell body to the terminal buttons.

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axon

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The largest part of a neuron, containing the nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions.

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cell body (soma)

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The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

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central nervous system (CNS)

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Branchlike extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons and conducting impulses toward the cell body.

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dendrites

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Voltage change in a neuron’s dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron or neurons. See also resting potential, action potential.

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graded potential

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Chemical messengers that are produced in one gland and circulate through the bloodstream to their target tissues in other glands.

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hormones

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Neuron that transmits messages from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

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motor neuron

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Type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system.

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neuron

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Chemical messenger that transmits an impulse across the synaptic gap from one neuron to another.

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neurotransmitter

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Division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning the body to normal from emergency responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system.

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parasympathetic nervous system

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State in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron. See also graded potential, action potential.

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resting potential

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Includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal between neurons. See also Synaptic gap.

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synapse

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An increase in the size of a postsynaptic potential to a weak stimulus resulting from tonal changes that underlie learning and memory. Also see long-term potentiation.

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synaptic facilitation

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The miniscule space between neurons, approximately five-millionths of an inch across.

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synaptic gap

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Bulb-like structure on the end of a neuron's axon that releases neurotransmitters.

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terminal buttons

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The largest portion of the cerebral cortex (about 75 percent), involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as processing higher functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

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association areas / association cortex

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Region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the sound of human speech.

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auditory cortex

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Region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech.

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Broca's area

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The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.

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cerebellum

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Thin outer layer that covers the cerebral hemispheres that is the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

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cerebral cortex

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The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

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corpus callosum

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Largest, foremost lobe in the cerebral cortex of the brain lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

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frontal lobe

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Region of the cerebral cortex at the rear of the frontal lobes that transmits messages to muscles; controls virtually all voluntary body movements.

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motor cortex

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Region of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that consists primarily of the visual cortex.

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occipital lobe

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Region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. This lobe contains the somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by the somatosensory cortex.

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parietal lobe

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The brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.

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plasticity

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Neuron or nerve cell that carries mes­sages to the CNS from receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes, and other receptor organs. Also known as afferent neuron.

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sensory neuron

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Area of the parietal lobe, directly across from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position.

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sensory cortex

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Region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex and whose primary function is hearing.

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temporal lobe

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Portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the eyes into electrical patterns that the brain translates into vision.

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visual cortex

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Area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech.

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Wernicke's area

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The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

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behavior genetics

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The study of understanding the origins of behavior using the principles of natural selection.

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evolutionary psychology

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The assortment of genes that each individual inherits at conception.

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genotype

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Characteristics that result from the expression of various genotypes (for instance, brown eyes or blond hair).

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phenotype

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The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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culture

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Set of behaviors that is considered normal and appropriate for males and for females in a society.

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gender role

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A simple, automatic, inborn response to a specific stimulus.

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reflex

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Field of specialization in psychology concerned with factors that influence development and shape behavior throughout the life cycle, from conception to childhood, through old age.

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Developmental psychology

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In Piaget's theory, adapting one’s current understandings to incorporate new information.

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accommodation

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In Piaget’s theory, the process by which individuals interpret new information in accordance with existing knowledge or schemas.

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assimilation

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Intense emotional tie between two individuals, shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

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attachment

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According to Erik Erikson's 8-stage theory of psychosocial development, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

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basic trust