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133 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the 7 themes of Psychology?
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1. Psychology is Empirical
2. Psychology is Theoretically Diverse 3. Psychology evolves in a socio-historical context 4. Behavior is determined by multiple causes 5. people's experiences of the world are highly subjective 6. Behavior is shaped by cultural heritage 7. heredity and environment jointly influence behavior |
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Behavioral psychology
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Skinner, pavlov
-Psychology should study only observable behavior -Environment affects overt behavior of humans and animals |
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Psychoanalytic Psychology
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Freud
-unconscious motives, influenced by sexual urges and early childhood experiences. affect behavior |
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Humanistic Psychology
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Rogers, Maslow
- Humans are free, rational, beings that grow and differ from animals - Hierarchy of needs - unconditional love |
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Cognitive Psychology
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- Chomsky
-Behavior cannot be studied unless we understand how the mind processes information |
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Biological Psychology
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- Behavior is explained by physiological basis
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Observation
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Observation is using the senses to gather empirical data about someone.
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Inference
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Inference is drawing a hasty conclusion based on a first impression or glance
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Correlational research
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Correlational research is based on observances in nature, we can't draw clear conclusions from it because we can't control the variables
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Experimental research
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Experimental research we can draw conclusions because we can control all the variables but the results are less natural and more forced
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Independent variable
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The independent variable is often the treatment
EX: If you're studying a plant's growth with sunlight and without, the sunlight is the independent variable |
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Dependent variable
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The dependent variable is the reaction being studied
EX: If you're studying a plant's growth with sunlight and without, the growth is the dependent variable |
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Questions about B.S.
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• Who did the research?
• Who paid for the research? • Is correlation used to talk about cause? • Was there a control group? • Has it been replicated? |
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Dendrites
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the parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information
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Soma
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cell body that contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most
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Axon
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a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands (axon away)
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Myelin sheath
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insulation material that encases some axons, speeds up the transmission of signals that move along the axons
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Terminal buttons
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small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters - serve as messengers that activate neighboring neurons
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Synapse
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the junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
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Frontal Lobe
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performs motor tasks
located in the front of the brain |
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The parietal lobe
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The parietal lobe is somatosensory and is the sense of touch
is is located at the top of the brain |
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Occipital lobe
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The occipital lobe is related to vision
it is located at the back of the brain |
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temporal lobe
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The temporal lobe is associated with auditory function
located at the bottom of the brain |
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Left Hemisphere
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The left hemisphere almost exclusively handles language
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Right Hemisphere
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The right side is better at non-verbal, spatial, visual and musical recognition tasks
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Cerebellum
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Coordination and balance
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Pons
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Sleep and wake cycles
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Medulla
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autonomic system and crossover
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Reticular formation
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sleep and wake, activating higher parts of the brain to accept incoming information
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Amygdala
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Raw emotion, fear responses
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Hippocampus
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memory
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Thalamus
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Relay station for sensory information
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Hypothalamus
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neuron concentrations that regulate basic biologic needs
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Corpus callosum
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connects the two hemispheres
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How is the concept of plasticity related to the theme that genes and environment jointly influence behavior?
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Just as psychological processes affect actions, actions affect the brain
Like in the juggling example |
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Ach
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Movement, memory (found in every connection where neurotransmitters interact with muscle)
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Dopamine
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Attention, thought, movement
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Norepinephrine (NE)
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mood, arousal, (activity level)
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Serotonin
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mood, sleep, appetite, sex drive
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Endorphins
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Pleasure, pain relief
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GABA
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inhibitory NT, slows down neurotransmitter activity
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Adenosine
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sleep, fatigue
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Fovea
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tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones - visual activity is greatest at this spot
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Optic disk
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the blind spot, where the fibers drive through the hole in the retina
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Retina
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the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye: it absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain
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Rods
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specialized receptors for night vision and preipheral vision
Outnumber cones |
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Cones
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specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight and color vision
Do not do well in dim light Provide better visual acuity Concentrated in center of retina |
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Thalamus
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visual input is processed in the thalamus
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Opponent process theory
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holds that color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to 3 pairs of colors
Red vs. green, yellow vs. blue, black vs. white |
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Trichromatic theory
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the human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different lights and wavelengths
We can see other colors because our eyes mix |
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Figure and ground
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vase
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Proximity
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things that are near one another seem to belong together
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Closure
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people often group elements to create a sense of closure or completeness
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Similarity
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people tend to group stimuli that are similar
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Simplicity
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people tend to group elements that combine to form a good figure or in the simplest way possible
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Continuity
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people tend to connect points that result in straight or gently curved lines that create smooth paths
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Retinal disparity
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the objects within 25 feet project to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas so the eyes see slightly different views
• The closer an object gets, the greater the disparity |
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What are the different stages of sleep? How do they change over the course of a full period of sleep?
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Awake - beta (high frequency activity)
Drowsy - alpha Stage 1 sleep - slight slowing of waves - fewer neurons firing Stage 2 - bigger shift -sleep spindles (bran looks like it's falling asleep) Slow wave sleep (stages 3&4) large ups and downs - reduced frequency i. Much less frequency - deepest stages REM sleep -followers shallower stage (mimics stage 1) - Brain very active, a lot of dreaming - Almost no contracted muscle tone |
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What causes the most common form of insomnia? How can you improve sleep without medication?
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Occasional insomnia is very common - typically due to stress
Evaluate and improve sleep hygiene a. Exercise but not close to bedtime b. Avoid alcohol, nicotine, caffeine c. Avoid or limit naps d. Find ways to relax before bedtime |
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Describe three psychological approaches to explaining the cause and meaning of dreams.
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Supernatural
cogntive psychoanalytic |
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What do we know about hypnosis and memory?
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Hypnosis does not enhance memory but rather can create false memories
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Sensory Memory
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Large Capacity but very short (.25 sec) duration
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Short Term Memory
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"Working Memory"
- Small capacity 7 +/- 2 chunks of info - Duration : short 20-30 seconds w/o effort - Chunking reduces the number of information within normal capacity |
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Long Term Memory
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a. Large capacity - essentially unlimited
b. Duration - very long c. Information is in fragments connected in semantic network d. Memory more like writing a book than reading it |
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Encoding
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input: transferring information into memory
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Storage
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maintaining: keeping information into memory
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Retrieval
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Output: getting info out of LTM so we can recall it
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Describe several effective ways of improving encoding, especially those that use a deeper level of processing.
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- Attention
- Rehearsal - Mnemonics - Deeper processing |
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Describe at least four causes of forgetting. Focus on the ones that occur most often.
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Encoding Failure "pseudofailing"
- Divided attention - Ineffective encoding strategies - Alcohol, marijuana - hippocampus Retrieval Failure Interference Anxiety Fatigue Motivated forgetting - We Want to forget 2 types Suppression - deliberate (most often) 1. Conscious 2. Directing attention to something else |
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How is classical conditioning different from operant conditioning?
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Operant conditioning deals with complex actions whereas classical deals with immediate responses
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In what way are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement the same? How do they differ?
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Positive and negative reinforcement both work to promote a behavior
Positive adds reward Negative subtracts uncomfortable situation |
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Imagine that you are reading an example of operant conditioning and you have to determine if it is positive, reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment. How will you determine this?
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Look to see if something is being added or taken away and if the action is intended to bolster or discourage a behavior
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Partial reinforcement
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Partial reinforcement is less effective
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Fixed schedule of reinforcement
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Not as effective as variable
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Variable schedule of reinforcement
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Variable is more consistent
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What is the systems model of emotion?
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Event -> appraisal ->consequence
A->B->C |
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What is broaden-and-build theory? How has it been tested empirically? Provide several suggestions for cultivating positive emotion.
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Positive emotions create broader thinking and improve problem solving, negative emotions cause a limited range of thought processes, positive emotions undo negative emotions, cause "upward spiral"
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What is development? What are some key questions that developmental psychologists are trying to answer? How are these questions related to important themes of psychology?
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Development is Age related change that occurs from conception to death
• How do we change as we age? • What causes something to develop? • What causes individual differences? • Heredity vs. environment |
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Summarize the main points about genes in context from the article by Champagne and Mashoodh.
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Genes and experiences affect each other
Epigenetics |
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Explain the following concepts: Genetic transcription, epigenetic mechanisms, G à E effects, G X E effects
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• Epigenetic mechanisms
○ Factors around or in addition to the gene ○ Influence whether it will be active or silent ○ EX: Methylation - going to silence genes so it is unlikely to go under transcription |
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What causes you to develop into a unique individual?
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Experiences, cognition, genes, environment
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Low demandingness, Low responsiveness
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Rejecting/neglecting parents
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Low demandingness, High responsiveness
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Permissive parenting
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High demandingness, low responsiveness
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Authoritarian parenting
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High demandingness, high responsiveness
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Authoritative parenting
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Strengths/Weaknesses of self inventory personality tests
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Self-Report Inventory
○ Strengths § Quick § Inexpensive § Easy to administer § Objective scoring ○ Weaknesses § Response biases |
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Strengths/Weaknesses of Projective personality tests
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○ Weaknesses
§ Difficult to score § Low validity § Response biases ○ Strengths § Facilitate self-reflection Obtain subjective information |
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Projective personality tests
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Involve ambiguous stimuli such as
§ Pictures § Inkblots The assumption is that the responses reflect personality traits |
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Biological Factors of personality
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§ Evidence of genetic influences
□ Heritability estimates ® Based on correlational studies ® About 40-50% § Molecular biology □ Single gene study □ Personality traits are polygenic □ Epigenitic factors |
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Behavioral factors of personality
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§ Personality traits = responsive tendencies which are learned through
□ Operant conditioning ® Consequences, reinforcement, and punishment □ Observational learning ® Imitation of role models (Skinner) |
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Social-Cognitive factors of personality
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§ Personality emerges from interaction of social experiences and cognitive processes
§ Focus on cognition (Bandura) |
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Humanistic factors of personality
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○ Humanism
§ Person-centered theory □ Real self □ Self-concept □ Congruence □ Incongruence □ Unconditional love (Rogers) § Self-actualization theory § Hierarchy of needs □ Must satisfy lower needs before we can experience personal growth □ Self actualization is the highest level (maslow) |
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Psychodynamic factors of personality
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§ Unconscious
§ Early childhood experiences |
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What are the Big 5 Traits?
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1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Neuroticism 5. Openness to experience |
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What is abnormal? List five criteria of abnormal behavior.
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1. Socially deviant
2. Maladaptive 3. Personally distressing 4. Disturbing or harmful to others 5. Not rationally justifiable Normality is a continuum |
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What is schizophrenia? How is it different from bipolar disorder? How is it different from dissociative identity disorder?
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- Schizophrenic disorders encompass a class of disorders marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and deterioration of adaptive behavior
- Bipolar disorder is marked by the experience of both depressed and manic periods - Dissociative identity disorder involves the coexistence in one person of two or more largely complete and usually very different personalities "multiple personality syndrome" |
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Diagnosis
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○ Involves identifying a set of specific symptoms and problems
§ Symptoms - abnormalities in behavior, emotion, and/or thought § Problems - difficulties caused by the symptoms |
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Prognosis
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"rule of thirds"
a. Complete recovery b. Control symptoms with treatmens c. Symptoms continue in spite of treatment |
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Etiology
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causal factors and the developmental history of a disorder
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Describe the diathesis-stress model
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Diathesis: predisposition or vulnerability
§ Internal risk factors § Genetics, brain structure, neurotransmitters, cognitive pattern Stress § External risk factors § Put pressure on the individual to cope, act, or react § May precipitate symptoms if someone has a diathesis □ EX: jessica's stress precipitated her internal tendencies and led to OCD |
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What is the DSM-IV used for? What are the most prevalent disorders in the US? |
○ DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual)
§ Formal classification system § Diagnostic criteria for over 200 disorders § Current edition DSMV-IV Most Common □ Anxiety □ Mood □ Substance-related |
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Prevalence
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○ About 1 in 6 adults in the US
§ Most common types □ Anxiety □ Mood □ Substance-related ○ Lifetime prevalence - aprox. 44% ○ Comorbidity - 2 or more disorders |
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Describe the risk factors for depression. How does the diathesis-stress model apply to depression?
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○ Diathesis factors
§ Genetic factors § Neurotransmitter activity § Cognitive factors □ Rumination - think over and over □ Explanatory style - how you think about reason for events □ Optimistic vs. Pessimistic |
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What is CBT? Describe the five core features of CBT. Explain the ABC model and the cognitive triad. What are the goals of CBT? Name some of the strategies used in CBT.
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Specific and goal related Problem focused Present focused Evidence based Collaborative Client/therapist relationship |
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How treatable is depression? Describe the most frequently used treatments for depression. Compare and contrast medication and psychotherapy as treatments for depression.
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Medication
○ Work for majority of population ○ Reduces symptoms ○ "poop out" effect - meds stop working ○ Can interfere with sex drive ○ "dry mouth" Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) ○ Voluntary procedure ○ Type of therapy that is specific to severe depression ○ Electrical current near temple to initiate seizure ○ Stop electrical current when seizure starts ○ 90% have reduction in symptoms § High rate of relapse Psychotherapy ○ Cognitive Behavioral therapy § A group of therapies that utilize cognitive interventions and behavior modification techniques to help clients change maladaptive patterns of thinking and behavior § Uses the ABC model § Cognitive triad § Longer lasting |
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OCD
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marked by persistent uncontrollable intrusions of unwanted thoughts and urges to engage in senseless rituals
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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marked by a chronic high level of anxiety that is not tied to any specific threat
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Phobic Disorder
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marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger
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Panic Disorder
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characterized by recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety that usually occur suddenly and unexpectedly
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Internal attribution
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ascribe the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings
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External attribution
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ascribe the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints
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Fundamental attribution error
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refers to observers' bias in favor of internal attributions of explaining others' behavior
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Stereotype
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widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group
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Prejudice
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attitude
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Discrimination
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action
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Describe how the concept of personal responsibility helps us to understand several social behaviors, including:
a) Obedience to authority b) Bystander effect c) Social loafing d) The behavior of the guards in the Stanford experiment and in Abu Graib prison |
A) Strong consistent authority, norm of obedience
B) Spread responsibility, deindividuation, norm of inaction C) Spread responsibility D) Social Roles, situations can transform people |
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Describe the components of the stress process. How is the stress process similar to the ABC model and the systems model of emotion?
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Potentially stressful event goes to subjective cognitive appraisal which branches into the emotional, physiological and behavioral responses
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What are the harmful effects of too much stress?
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worsened performance, disrupts cognitive functions, suppresses the immune system, damages organs, weight gain
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What are four categories of constructive coping? After listing these four categories, describe at least two specific strategies within each category.
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Cognitive
- change interpretation of stressors - optimistic thinking -fight against negative catastrophic thinking - social comparison - humor - Forgiving others -Gratitude Time Management - Set of personal goals - find out where you are losing time - make an action plan - prioritize your to-do list Physical - breathing - relaxation -Physical activity Social -Spend time with friends - emotional self-disclosure |
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Id, superego, ego
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freud
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Unconditional love
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rogers
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Schedules of reinforcement
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Skinner
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ABC’s of CBT
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Beck
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Hierarchy of needs
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maslow
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Classical conditioning
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pavlov
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First psychology laboratory
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Wundt
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Unconscious defense mechanisms
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Freud
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Broaden-and-build theory
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Fredrickson
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Operant conditioning
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Skinner
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Person-centered theory
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Rogers
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Obedience
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Milgram
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Social roles/Stanford prison study
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Zimbardo
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Bobo doll experiment on observation learning
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bandura
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