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87 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Experimental Studies
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•Researchers manipulate one variable tofind out what effect it has on another variable (more artificial setting)
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Independent Variable(IV)
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What the researcher manipulatesbody
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▫Dependent Variable (DV)
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The outcome measure
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Causation
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Changing the Independent Variable causes a change in the Dependent Variable
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Confound
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Aproblem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables;as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasuredvariable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest
Ex: “Icecream makes you drown” |
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Third Variable Problem
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When an unintentional third variable influences two separate variables that are being measured. this causes a random and coincidental relationship between the two variables.
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Control Group
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The Comparison Group
- Groupwhere the IV is not manipulated -Group of research participants who do not receive the treatment, or themanipulation Ex: •Takingtests in hot rooms decreases test scores |
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Positive Correlation
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As one variable increases, the othervariable also increases and vice versa. In statistics, a perfect positive correlation is represented by the value+1.00, while a 0.00 indicates no correlation
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Negative Correlation
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Onevariable increases as the other decreases, and vice versa.
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Classical Conditioning
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Learn that 2 events occur together
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Operant Conditioning
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Learn that a behavior leads to an outcome
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Framing Effect
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•anexample of cognitive bias, in which people react to a particular choice indifferent ways depending on how it is presented.
- Can be used to discourage others |
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False-Consensus Effect/bias
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•acognitive bias whereby a person tends to overestimate the extent to which theirbeliefs or opinions are typical of those of others.
-It increases self-esteem |
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Cross Cultural Studies
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aspecialization that use field data from many societies to examine the scope ofhuman behavior and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture
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Self-Esteem
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Indicatesa person’s emotional response tocontemplating personal characteristics “Am I good or bad?” “Am I worthy orunworthy?”
•Ourlevel of self-esteem is related to our perception of world around us |
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Sociocultural Model
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Lifestyles,expectations, opportunities
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7Psychological Themes?
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1.Psychology Is An Empirical Science
2.Nature v. Nurture 3.Brain & Mind are Inseparable 4.Biological Revolution is Changing Research 5.The Mind is Adaptive 6.Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis 7.Multiple Influences on How We Think, Feel, & Act |
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Factors that Influence Behavior
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Personality,learning, and genetics
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Personality Types
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Discrete categories of people based onpersonality characteristics
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Personality Traits
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Behavioral dispositions that endure overtime and across situations
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Prejudice refers to attitudes
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Attitudinal responses associated withstereotypes, usually involving negative judgments about people on the basis oftheir group membership
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Discrimination refers to behavior
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Unjustified and inappropriate treatmentof people as a result of prejudice
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Stereotypes
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•Schemas thathelp us to quickly organize information about those we encounter
-Based on membership in certain groups |
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Vivid Cases
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we often judge frequency of events by instances that readily come to mind and therefore influence our judgements of a group.
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Sigmund Freud
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•Thefather of psychoanalytic theory
- •Sexual Instincts: Oral, anal, phallic psychosexual stages, latency
•Structural Model: Id, ego, superego |
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Central Premise
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- unconsciousforces (wishes, desires, hidden memories…) determine behavior
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Structural Model
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ID: operateson the pleasure principle
Ego: basedon the reality principle Superego: themoral part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed onus by our caregivers |
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Freud's Psycosexual Stages
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Humanistic Approach
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•Emphasizes personal experience, beliefsystems, and the uniqueness of the human condition
-▫Each person is inherently good -Personal growth depends on thefreedom to express one’s values and beliefs -Everyone has subjective personal experiences |
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Humanistic Approach |
-Client-centered therapy
-Promoted warm, supportive environment inwhich clients could share problems & concerns; therapist attempts to paraphrase client’s words back to the client -Recommended that parents promote unconditional positive regard |
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Abraham Maslow
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-Proposed that people seek to fulfilltheir human potential for personal growth through greater self-understanding
-Hierarchyof needs -Self-actualization |
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Social Cognitive Theory
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-Albert Bandura
- Developedwith an emphasis on the acquisition of social behaviors -Emphasizethat learning occurs in a social context - much of what is learned is gainedthrough observation |
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
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•viewproblems as a result of maladaptive beliefs based on prior learningexperiences.
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Self - Schema
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•Thecognitive aspect of the self-concept – an integrated set of memories, beliefs& generalizations about the self
-Increased activity in the frontal lobe |
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Sociometer Theory
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•internalmonitor of social acceptance or rejection.
•Whena person’s sociometerindicates a low probability of rejection, the person will tend to experiencehigh self-esteem. |
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Personality Types
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-Discrete categories of people based onpersonality characteristics
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Personality Traits
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-Behavioraldispositions that endure over time and across situations
- Lookfor patterns of repeated behavior or reaction to particular situations |
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Personality
Idiographic Approaches |
-They focus on individual lives and howcharacteristics are integrated into unique persons (Person-Centered)
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Personality
Nomothetic Approaches |
Focus on how common characteristics vary from person to person (trait theory)
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5 Personality Factors
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Openness to experience
Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism |
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Self-Esteem
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-Self-esteemindicates a person’s emotional response tocontemplating personal characteristics “Am I good or bad?” “Am I worthy orunworthy?” (Doesnot predict much about other areas of life)
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Working Self-Concept
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•Refersto the immediate experience of the self andvaries from situation to situation (i.e., at a party I am “fun-loving”, inclass I am “intelligent”
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“BetterThan Average Effect”
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•Mostpeople tend to describe themselves as above average in nearly every way
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Self-Serving Bias
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•Tendencyfor people to take personal credit for success, but blame failure on externalfactors
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Projective Measures
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-Examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli. Projective techniques strength lies in weakening the defenses and getting a clearerpicture of the unconscious
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
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the most commonly used projective technique. The test consists of ten white cards with blots of ink on them in either black, black and red, or multi colored.
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Thematic Apperception Test
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consists of numerous cards with black and white and grayscale pictures. The TAT requires subjects to make up stories that explain ambiguous pictures.
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House-Tree-Person
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requires no specific materials and is not standardized at all. The assessor tells the individual to draw a picture of a house, a tree, and a person. Once completed, he may ask the individual to tell a story related to each picture, including the who, what,where, how, and why's of each.
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Objective Measures
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•Relatively direct assessments of personality, usually based on information gathered through self-report questionnaires or observer ratings. Objective measures assess what respondents report believing or observing.
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•LicensedProfessional Counselor (LPC)•LicensedClinical Social Worker (LCSW)
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Master’s degree or above - must obtainsupervised clinical experience and must pass a state licensing exam
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Clinical Psycologist
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•Ph.D.(Doctor of Philosophy) or Psy.D. (Doctor ofPsychology)in clinical or counseling psychology.
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Psychiatrist
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•physicians that have specific training in the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses.
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Mental Illness
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- causedby biological and environmental factors
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Assessment
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Theprocess of examining a person’s mental functions and psychological healtha
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Mental Status Exam
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Involvesbehavioral observations: evaluations of person’s personal grooming, ability tomake eye contact, tremors or twitches, mood, speech, thought content, andmemory
-•Themental status exam is also useful for determining whether mental impairmentsare due to psychological or acute physical condition (i.e., stroke, headinjury…) |
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Etiology
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•originof the disorder; contributing factors
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Diagnosis
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•labelingthe disorder(s) after thorough evaluation
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Prognosis
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•whatto expect throughout the course of the disorder; what outcome to expect (basedon diagnosis)
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Comorbidity
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•theco-occurrence of 2 or more mental disorders (ex. – anxiety & depression)
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
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•theco-occurrence of 2 or more mental disorders (ex. – anxiety & depression)
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Mental Retardation (Axis II Disorders)
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IntellectualDisability; Developmental Disability
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Personality Disorders
Antisocial |
tend to antagonize, manipulate or treatothers either harshly or with callous indifference. They may often violate thelaw, landing in frequent trouble, yet they show no guilt or remorse. They may lie, behave violently orimpulsively, and have problems with drug and alcohol use. (Charles Manson, TedBundy)
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Personality Disorders
Borderline
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pervasive pattern of instability ininterpersonal relationships, self-image and emotions. People with borderline personality disorder are also usually veryimpulsive, oftentimes demonstrating self-injurious behaviors (risky sexualbehaviors, cutting, suicide attempts). “I love you, I hate you” mentality –cannot tolerate the idea of being abandoned.
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Diathesis Stress Model
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Biological predisposition (“diathesis”) to particular mental disorder& triggered by stress (doesnot directly “cause” the mental disorder, but creates vulnerability)
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Biological Model
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Genetic factors, toxins, &/or malnutrition alter the CNS(structure, function)
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Family Systems Model
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Person’s interaction with familyLearned behavior, classical & operant conditioning
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Sociocultural Model
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Person’s interaction with culture
Lifestyles,expectations, opportunities (ex. – low socioeconomic status & schizophrenia) May be biases – wealthy people are “eccentric”,schizophrenics may have trouble finding work |
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Cognitive-Behavioral Approach
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Distorted thought processes lead tomaladaptive behavior
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Anxiety Disorders
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•characterizedby the feeling of excessive anxiety in the absence of any real threat
-most common type of mental disorders -greater than 1 in 4 people will experience some kind of anxiety disorder |
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Anxiety Disorders
Phobic Disorder
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•Irrational fearof a specific object or situation
Ex: Acrophobia- Fear of heights Agoraphobia- Fear of open spaces or crowded, public places Triskaidekaphobia- Fear of the number 13Panophobia - Fear of everything -Anticipation, Avoidance, Relief |
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Treatment to Phobic Disorder
Systematic Desensitization |
•thetherapist exposes the client to increasingly anxiety-producing situations byhaving the client imagine them and then teaching the client to relax at thesame time
-Ex: Imagineseeing a snake Imaginetouching a snake Lookat a snake Toucha snake Holdthe snake |
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Anxiety Disorders
Panic Disorder |
•Suddenonset of overwhelming anxiety/terror (called a “panic attack”)
-Causes dread, anticipation, avoidance -CANlead to agoraphobia through learning |
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder(OCD)
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-More common in women than men, generallybegins in young adulthood
O = Obsessive thoughts,images, impulsesLeadto emotional distress C = Compulsive ritualistic behaviors Attemptto relieve the distress (likely developed through classical conditioning) Fearof dire consequences if ritual not performed |
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Psychotherapy, Medications, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy(CBT)
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Treatment for OCD
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Anxiety Disorder
GeneralizedAnxiety Disorder |
-Experience of anxiety with no specifictrigger or threat
-Minor matters exaggerated -General sense of worry and dread -Pessimistic -Physical Symptoms -Chronic worrying |
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Mood Disorders
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•Characterizedby extreme emotionaldisruption
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Manic Episode Symptoms
Bipolar Disorder |
•braindisorder that causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and theability to carry out day-to-day tasks.
•Mood/Affect ▫Elated,euphoric, grandiose delusions •Cognitive ▫Fleetingideas, racing thoughts, extreme boost in self-confidence •Behavioral ▫Highenergy, hyper, extravagant plans, hypersexual -Cannot be cured however controlled •Lithium ishighly effective in the treatment of bipolar disorder, but patients often refuse to takeit because it blunts the euphoria of the manic cycle. |
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Symptoms of Depression
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•Mood/Affect
▫Dejected,gloomy, irritable •Cognitive ▫Slowthinking, indecisive, guilt, worry, low self-esteem •Behavioral -Fatigue,sluggish, sleep problems, appetite, loss of interestsishe “common cold” of mental illness -Patientswith depression tend to attribute negative outcomes to personal shortcomingswhile attributing positive outcomes to external factors. |
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Depression
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-characterizedby severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurableactivities (anhedonia)
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Dysthmia
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aform of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as majordepression
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Seasonal Affective Disorder(SAD)
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•isa type of depression related to changes in seasons — SAD begins and ends atabout the same times every year. Symptoms usually start in the fall andcontinue into the winter months,
▫Treatment for SAD may include lighttherapy (phototherapy), psychotherapy and medications. ▫Why might light therapy work? – it alters natural biologicalrhythms |
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Schizophrenia
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•Literal translation = “split mind” ▫Thoughts/emotions are split from reality
▫Do not confuse with ‘split personality’ •Primarily considered a thought disorder(asopposed to mood disorder) •Characterized by distorted thoughts thatare out of touch with reality •Affects approximately 1% of thepopulation" |
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Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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•PositiveSymptoms (not“Good”)
▫Symptoms that represent an excess (addition) of “abnormal”behaviors (e.g.,delusions & hallucinations) •Delusions ▫False beliefs
•Hallucinations ▫False perceptions •Loose associations ▫chaotic thinking •Disorganized or Inappropriate Behavior▫Wearing layers of clothing during hot summer▫Laughing at a story of a child’s death |
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Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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•NegativeSymptoms
▫Lack (reduction) of importantabilities and “normal” behaviors (e.g.,lack of affect, social withdrawal) •Apathy,lack of emotion •Blank,blunted facial expression •Pooror nonexistent social functioning •Lackof interest in life (anhedonia), •lowmotivation |
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Etiology: Environmental Factors
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•Sociocultural –Schizophrenia is more common among poorer people
•Poorcoping skills maytrigger onset •Stress ▫Urban environment – may trigger onset▫“Disturbed” or “dysfunctional” familiesincrease the risk of developing schizophrenia for those who are genetically atrisk |
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Autism
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A developmental disorder with social skills deficits, Impaired Communication, and Restricted interests/repetitive behaviors
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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
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•Persistentdeficits in social communication and socialinteraction acrossmultiple contexts
Symptoms: •Lackof or delay in spoken language•Repetitiveuse of language and/or motor mannerisms (e.g., hand-flapping, twirling objects) •Littleor no eye contact •Lackof interest in peer relationships •Lackof spontaneous or make-believe play•Persistentfixation on parts of objects |
