Psychology Exam 2

Front 1

T or F: Some people hardly ever dream

Back 1

False; some people don't remember.

Front 2

T or F: Dreams usually last only a few seconds.

Back 2

False; normal time as in reality.

Front 3

What percent of dreams are in color?

Back 3

100%

Front 4

Are dreams necessary for either survival or sanity?

Back 4

Neither; but lack of REM does cause irritability.

Front 5

Which is better: 1 hour of sleep or none at all?

Back 5

None at all... after 1 hour of sleep you are still in groggy stage of sleep.

Front 6

Is it dangerous to awaken a sleep walker?

Back 6

Doesnt really matter

Front 7

T or F: All mammals dream

Back 7

True

Front 8

Do birds dream?

Back 8

Yes; well, they seem to because they have REM.

Front 9

Do reptiles dream?

Back 9

No.

Front 10

T or F: If you have a falling dream in which you die, you will die in real life.

Back 10

False; you CAN die in your sleep but probably not.

Front 11

Night Terror

Back 11

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep--within 2 to 4 hours of falling asleep and are seldom remembered. Target mostly children who may sit up or walk around, talk incoherently, experience a doubling of heart and breathing rates, and appear terrified.

Front 12

Is too much sleep as bad as too little?

Back 12

Yes.

Front 13

R.E.M.

Back 13

Rapid Eye Movement; occurs when dreaming. Muscles are relaxed, but other body systems are active. Stimulation by REM waves increases or ability to learn.

Front 14

Pons

Back 14

turn off voluntary movement; this is why it feels like we can't move sometimes.
Jerky falling feeling when falling asleep happens when REM deprived because your body skips stage 1 and goes straight to REM sleep and doesnt give body a chance to turn off pons.
Sleep paralyses - pons not on yet in morning

Front 15

Circadian Rhythm

Back 15

regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Front 16

alpha waves

Back 16

relatively slow waves in your awake but relaxed state; slowed breathing, irregular brain waves

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delta waves

Back 17

large, slow waves, associated with deep sleep

Front 18

We need sleep because sleep.... (4 theories)

Back 18

1) protects
2) helps us recuperate
3) helps us remember
4) may play a role in growth process

Front 19

Narcolepsy

Back 19

sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

Front 20

Sleep Apnea

Back 20

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Front 21

Dreams - REM rebound

Back 21

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings duing REM sleep)
--people return more and more quickly to REM state

Front 22

lucid dream

Back 22

a dream in which the person is aware that they are dreaming while the dream is in progress,. When the dreamer is lucid, they can actively participate in and often manipulate the imaginary experiences in the dream environment. Lucid dreams can be extremely real and vivid depending on a person's level of self-awareness during the lucid dream.

Front 23

REM Behavioral Disorder (RBD)

Back 23

occurs when REM sleep paralysis is blocked, and a person is able to act out dramatic and/or violent dreams.

Front 24

Developmental aspects of dreams

Back 24

REM more frequent as age increases.
Preschool: 15% of the time; animals often mentioned, but not human characters
Ages 5-7: 30% of the time; events in serious, physical activity, social interaction
Ages 7-9: 43% of the time; own individual's participation in the dream, feelings,
Ages 9-11 (adult level): 80% of the time; abstract/thought-like dreams didn't occur until adolescence

Front 25

Effects of REM Deprivation

Back 25

lack of ability to learn; also effects creativity

Front 26

Hypnosis

Back 26

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Front 27

age regression hypnosis

Back 27

takes you back to a previous time (say, age 4). You may act like a 4 year old, but your memory is no better under hypnosis

Front 28

posthypnotic suggestion

Back 28

a suggestion made during a hypnosis session to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Front 29

dissociation

Back 29

A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. This is what allows you to kind of step outside and watch yourself.

Front 30

animal magnetism

Back 30

mesmerizing -- a persons sexual attractiveness

Front 31

what hypnosis can and can't do

Back 31

Hypnosis can't do anything you wouldn't normally be able to do. The only thing is DOES seem to help with is minimizing pain.

Front 32

Classical Conditioning

Back 32

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. (Reflexes) A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. (Environment acts on you.)

Front 33

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Back 33

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Front 34

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Back 34

A stimulus that unconditionally --naturally and automatically -- triggers a response. (i.e. food)

Front 35

Conditioned Response (CR)

Back 35

the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
(i.e. salivation in response to buzzer)

Front 36

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Back 36

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response.
(i.e. buzzer + food= salivation; later buzzer --> salivation.... buzzer would be the CS)

Front 37

Extinction

Back 37

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an US does not follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

i.e. If the gun is not followed by a BANG!, eventually you'll stop jumping when you see the gun.

Front 38

Habituation

Back 38

tendency to stop noticing and responding to a stimulus after repeated exposure.

Front 39

Spontaneous Recovery

Back 39

the return of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Front 40

Generalization

Back 40

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (i.e. A dog conditioned to salivate when rubbed, would also salivate when somewhat scratched even though being scratched had never been paired with food.)

Front 41

Discrimination

Back 41

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Slightly different stimuli can be followed by vastly different consequences. (i.e. confronted by a pit bull, your heart may race but when confronted by a golden retriever, it probably will not)

Front 42

cognitive process affecting classical conditioning

Back 42

Yes, experiments that ignore cognition have limited success.

Cognitive Process = thoughts, perceptions, expectations

The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response. We learn the expectancy and become aware of how likely it is that the US will occur.
For example, people receiving alcohol spike with nauseating drug for alcoholism therapy will not associate alcohol with sickness because they have the awareness that the nausea is induced by the drug, not the alcohol.

Front 43

biological constraints affecting classical conditioning

Back 43

Each species predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival.

If you became violently ill after eating mussels, you probably would have a hard time eating them again. Their smell and taste would have become a CS for nausea. Yet, you wouldn't have developed an aversion to the sight of the restaurant, its plates, the people you were with, or the music you heard,

Front 44

Operant Conditioning

Back 44

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

Front 45

Shaping

Back 45

The reinforcement of successive approximations to reach some operant learning goal.
Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (i.e. warmer, warmer, hot, hot, on fire!)

Front 46

Positive Reinforcer

Back 46

like a reward; presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response to reinforce good behavior. (dog treats)

Front 47

Negative Reinforcer

Back 47

strengthens a response by reducing or removing something undesirable or unpleasant. (I'll stop pinching you if you do this for me)

Front 48

Primary reinforcer

Back 48

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

(when you go to the bathroom, you feel better or when youre hungry, you get food)

Front 49

Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

Back 49

get their power through their association with secondary reinforcers. (money, good grades, pleasant tone of voice) Things linked to more basic rewards.

Front 50

Superstitious Conditioning

Back 50

Incorrect learning that can occur
when a behavior is accidentally rewarded

Front 51

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Back 51

an evolutionary alternative
explanation for operant learning. It holds that behaviors which are
rewarded survive; behaviors which are not rewarded do not survive

Front 52

fixed-ratio schedule

Back 52

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Produces higher rates of responding.

Like when coffee shops give you a free drink after every 10 purchases.

Front 53

Variable-ratio schedule

Back 53

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Produces higher rates of responding, because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase.

(i.e. slot machine)

Front 54

fixed interval schedule

Back 54

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified time has elapsed. Produces a choppy, start stop pattern.
(i.e. checking to see if the Jell-O is set, or if pizza is done)

Front 55

variable interval schedule

Back 55

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Produces slow, steady responding.

Front 56

punishment

Back 56

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows; opposite of reinforcement.

Front 57

effects of cognitive processes on operant conditioning

Back 57

organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Front 58

effects of biological predispositions on operant conditioning

Back 58

organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones

Front 59

Short-Term Memory

Back 59

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

Front 60

Long-Term Memory

Back 60

the relatively permanent and limitless store-house of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Front 61

Spacing Effect

Back 61

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Front 62

Serial Position Effect

Back 62

tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list.

Front 63

Mnemonics

Back 63

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Ex. Method of Loci, Peg-Word System

Front 64

Method of Loci

Back 64

a technique for memorizing many things and has been practiced since classical antiquity. It is a type of mnemonic link system based on places (loci, otherwise known as locations), used most often in cases where long lists of items are concerned. To memorize a speech, one breaks it up into pieces, each of which is symbolized by vividly imagined objects or symbols. In the mind's eye, one then places each of these images into different loci. They can then be recalled in order by imagining that one is walking through the building again, visiting each of the loci in order, and viewing each of the images that were placed in the loci, thereby recalling each piece of memory or speech in order.

Front 65

Peg-Word System

Back 65

- technique for memorizing lists. It works by pre-memorizing a list of words that are easy to associate with the numbers they represent (1 to 10, 1-100, 1-1000, etc). Those objects form the "pegs" of the system. Then in the future, to rapidly memorize a list of arbitrary objects, each one is associated with the appropriate peg. Generally, a peg list only has to be memorized one time, and can then be used over and over every time a list of items needs to be memorized. Ex. 1 gun, to memorize an apple on a grocery list picture it being fired from a gun, 2 zoo: picture a gorilla stomping on butter

Front 66

Chunking

Back 66

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Front 67

Iconic Memory

Back 67

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Front 68

Echoic Memory

Back 68

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Front 69

The Magical Number Seven

Back 69

a 1956 paper by the cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University's Department of Psychology. In it Miller showed a number of remarkable coincidences between the channel capacity of a number of human cognitive and perceptual tasks. In each case, the effective channel capacity is equivalent to between 5 and 9 equally-weighted error-less choices: on average, about 2.5 bits of information.

Front 70

Long-Term Potentiation (Synaptic Memory)

Back 70

an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Front 71

Flashbulb Memory

Back 71

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

This is why we can remember exactly where we were or what we were doing on 9/11/01, but not 9/23 for example.

Front 72

Hippocampus

Back 72

a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage.

Front 73

Von Restorff Effect

Back 73

also called the isolation effect, predicts that an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" (called distinctive encoding) is more likely to be remembered than other items. For instance, if a person examines a shopping list with one item highlighted in bright green, he or she will be more likely to remember the highlighted item than any of the others.

Front 74

Bits

Back 74

(B)inary dig(its), smallest units of information

Front 75

State-Dependent Memory

Back 75

- an idea of learning and recalling that is based upon the physiological and mental state of the organism. Factors affecting state-dependent learning may include: environment, intoxication, emotional state, and sensory modality. For example, people in a drunken state remember events when they were drunk, but they cannot remember when they are sober.

Front 76

Mood Congruent Memory/The Mood Congruence Effect

Back 76

- the tendency of individuals to retrieve information more easily when it has the same emotional content as their current emotional state. For instance, being in a depressed mood increases the tendency to remember negative events. This effect has been demonstrated for explicit retrieval as well as implicit retrieval.

Front 77

Proactive Interference

Back 77

“Forgetting” that occurs when something learned first interferes with something learned later. Remembering something old, forgetting something new

Front 78

Retroactive Interference

Back 78

–“Forgetting” that occurs when something learned second interferes with something learned first. Learning something new, forgetting something old.

Front 79

Children’s Misinformation Effect

Back 79

After exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember. Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
For example, repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories. Imagined events later seem more familiar, and familiar things later seem more real.

Front 80

Children’s Eyewitness Recall

Back 80

The idea that the children can't reliably separate real memories from false ones.
This is false--the children don't make things up, but they are just as malleable as everyone else.
Interviewers should use less suggestive, more effective techniques by using neutral words and by not allowing the children to talk to involved adults prior to the interview.

Front 81

The Reconstructive Property of Memory

Back 81

Memory is a reconstruction, not a record. When remembering a situation, we invoke the most applicable schema/script and may unconsciously fill in missing information in order to complete the reconstruction. (Fill in the missing gaps)

Front 82

Retrograde Amnesia

Back 82

loss of memory for events occurring that occurred before the onset of amnesia.

Front 83

Post-Traumatic Amnesia

Back 83

loss of memory for events that occurred after the onset of amnesia.

Front 84

Algorithm

Back 84

solving a problem by trying every possible solution.

Front 85

Heuristics

Back 85

solving a problem using a “rule of thumb” (an approach that tries the most likely solution first). Ex. “I after e”

Front 86

Fixation (cognitive set)

Back 86

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving.

Front 87

Functional Fixedness

Back 87

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

Front 88

Representativeness Heuristic

Back 88

we decide how probable an event is by how similar it is to a known situation. Ex. We think people who look smart are more likely to be smart than people who don’t look smart, thinking a smoker is cool because smoking is portrayed as cool in advertisements. Second component of probabilistic inference/educated guessing.

Front 89

Availability Heuristic

Back 89

we decide how probable an event is by how easily we can think of examples of that event (this is the first component of probabilistic inference/educated guessing).
For example, there's only a 1 in 8 million chance that we'll die by being attacked by a shark, however we would perceive this probability to be much greater because we hear about shark attacks on the news. The probability that we will die while in the bathtub is MUCH more likely, but there is no breaking news on someone who died in the tub, so we don't think this happens as often as it does.

Front 90

Framing

Back 90

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Front 91

Probabilistic Inference

Back 91

an educated guess based on experience.

Front 92

Regression toward the Mean

Back 92

the tendency for extremes of unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
Things don't get rarer and rarer. When something rare happens, it's HIGHLY unlikely that something rarer will follow it. The following event will be closer to average (mean).

Front 93

Anchoring Heuristic

Back 93

the tendency for people to use previously determined starting points for making decisions.
"The ends move the middle."