Psychology Exam 2

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Encoding

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involves forming a memory code, or getting information into memory (entering data through keyboard)

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Storage

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involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time (saving data in file on hard disk)

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Retrieval

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involves recovering information from memory stores (calling up file and displaying data on monitor)

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Attention

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involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

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Three types of Encoding

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1. Structural
2. Phonemic
3. Semantic

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Structural Encoding...

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is relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

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Phonemic Encoding...

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emphasizes what a word sounds like

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Semantic Encoding...

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emphasizes the meaning of verbal input; it involves thinking about the objects and actions and words represent

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Depth of Processing

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results in better recall of information

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Three techniques for enriching encoding are...

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1. Elaboration
2. Visual Imagery
3. Self-referent Encoding

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Elaboration

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enriches encoding by is linking a stimulus to other information, such as examples of an idea

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Visual Imagery

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may help by creating two memory codes rather than just one. The creation of visual images to represent words can enrich encoding

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Self-referent Encoding

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involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant; this may be especially useful in facilitation retention

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Sensory Memory

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preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second; allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over

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Short-term Memory

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is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds

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Four Components in Working Memory:

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1. Phonological Loop
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad
3. Central Executive System
4. Episodic Buffer

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Phonological Loop

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evolved to facilitate the acquisition of language

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

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permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images

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Central Executive System

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controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention between two things

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Episodic Buffer

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a temporary, limited-capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate info that serves as an interface between working and long-term memory

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Flashbulb Memories

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are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events

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Conceptual Hierarchy

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is a multilevel hierarchy classification system based on common properties among items; can dramatically improve recall (organizing into clusters or categories).

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Schema

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an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.

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Semantic Network

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consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. Research suggests that activation spreads along the paths of these to activate closely associated words.

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PDP models

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assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks, and assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks.

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Retrieval Cues

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stimuli that help gain access to memories.

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Context Cues

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often facilitate the retrieval of information.

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What did Bartlett do?

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(This person) showed that memories are not exact replicas of past experiences and are partially reconstructive.

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misinformation effect

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shows that information learned after an event can alter one’s memory of it.

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imagination inflation

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Merely imagining an event can increase your confidence that the event actually happened to you.

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source monitoring

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the process of making attributions about the origins of memories; errors appear to be common and may explain why people sometimes “recall” something that was only suggested to them or something they only imagined.

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reality monitoring

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involves deciding whether memories are based on perceptions of actual events or on just thinking about the events.

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forgetting curve

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graphs retention and forgetting over time

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What are the three principal methods used to measure forgetting?

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1. Recall
2. Recognition
3. Relearning

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recall

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requires subjects to reproduce info on their own without any cues

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recognition

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requires subjects to select previously learned info from an array of options

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relearning

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requires subjects to memorize info a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before.

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pseudoforgetting

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usually due to lack of attention during the time of encoding.

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Decay Theory

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proposes that forgetting occurs spontaneously with the passage of time; it has proven difficult to show that decay occurs in LTM.

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Interference Theory

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proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material

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Proactive Interference

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occurs when old learning interferes with new information

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Retroactive Interference

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occurs when new learning interferes with old information

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How could forgetting be due to factors in the retrieval process?

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 According to the encoding specificity principle, the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code that represents the stored item.

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Long Term Potentiation

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A durable increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway.

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Retrograde Amnesia

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A person loses memory for events prior to the amnesia.

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Anterograde Amnesia

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A person shows memory deficits for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia.

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declarative memory

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memory handles factual information, depends more on conscious attention, is more vulnerable to forgetting, and appears to be handled by the medial temporal lobe.

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nondeclarative memory (procedural memory)

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memory for actions, skills, and conditioned responses; structures such as the cerebellum and amygdale appear to contribute.

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episodic memory

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made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences; a record of things you’ve done, seen, and heard.

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semantic memory

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contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned; contains information of general facts.

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prospective memory

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involves remembering to perform actions in the future.

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retrospective memory

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involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information.

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rehearsal

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has proven to improve retention; helps to transfer info into LTM

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overlearning

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refers to continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it

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the serial-position effect

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occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle.

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distributed practice

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tends to be more efficient than massed practice.

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interference

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a major cause of forgetting; it is best to minimize

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What are some verbal and visual mnemonic devices that can be used to improve everyday memory?

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Verbal mnemonics such as acrostics, acronyms, and narrative methods. The link method and the method of loci are mnemonic devices that depend on the value of visual imagery.

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Hindsight Bias

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the tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.

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What is the capacity, function, and duration of Sensory Memory?

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Capacity is very large (“scenic”). Everything in the scene you are looking at.

Function is to sustain sensations for identification.

duration is very short (it won’t stick around for very long; very brief form of memory-you are not even aware of it existing)

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What is the capacity, function, and duration of STM?

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Capacity is 7 plus or minus 2 items or “chunks” (very limited and not a lot).

Function is to do conscious work; to think.

Duration is 10-15 seconds.

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What is the capacity, function, and duration of LTM?

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Capacity is enormous (essentially unlimited).

Function is to tie together the past with the present.

Duration is very long (essentially permanent).

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iconic memory

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the visual sensory store (lasts for ½ second, having the shortest duration)

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echoic memory

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the auditory sensory store (might actually have consciousness and lasts for 3 seconds, having the longest duration)

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What did Peterson and Peterson demonstrate?

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The duration of short term memory; experiment had people remember letters and count backwards by 7’s; absense of rehearsal, STM is good for 10-15 seconds.

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What are the control processes of STM?

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1. Attention
2. Encoding
3. Retrieval
4. Rehearsal

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implicit memory

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includes memories you don't really think about

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explicit memory

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explicitly trying to recall things

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procedural memory

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your memory how to do things (ex: tying your shoes, driving a car, juggling, recognizing a face)

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classical conditioning

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when things from the past influence our decisions (remembering feelings, ex: test anxiety, Pavlov’s dogs, stopping for a red light)

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priming effects

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when we hear things, we can recite them later; no awareness (implicit)

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serial-order effect

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was to see how well people could remember a list of items

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primacy effect

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remembering first items more than the last items; delaying has no effect

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recency effect

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remembering more recent items than the first ones; deals with STM

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What are the three properties of language?

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1. Language is symbolic
2. Language is generative
3. Language is structured

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What does it mean that verbal language has a hierarchial structure?

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Basic sounds (phonemes) are combined into units with meaning (morphemes), which are combined into words. Words are combined into phrases (semantics), which are combined into sentences (syntax).

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Language is symbolic...

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People use spoken sounds and written words to represent objects, actions, events, and ideas.

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Language is generative...

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A limited number of symbols can be combined in an infinite variety of ways to generate an endless array of novel messages.

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Language is structured...

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Although people can generate an infinite variety of sentences, these sentences must be structured in a limited number of ways.

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Language Months 1-5

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Reflexive communication: vocalizes randomly, coos, laughs, cries, engages in vocal play, discriminates language from nonlanguage sounds.

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Language Months 6-18

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Babbling: verbalizes in response to speech of others; responses increasingly approximate human speech patterns.

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Language Months 10-13

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First words: uses words, typically to refer to objects.

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Language Months 12-18

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One-word sentence stage: Vocabulary grows slowly; uses nouns primarily; overextensions begin.

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Language Months 18-24

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Vocabulary spurt: Fast-mapping facilitates rapid acquisition of new words.

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Language Year 2

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Two-word sentence stage: Uses telegraphic speech; uses more pronouns and verbs.

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Language Year 2.5

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Three-word sentence stage: Modifies speech to take listener into account; overregularizations begin.

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Language Year 3

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Use complete simple active sentence structure; uses sentences to tell stories that are understood by others; uses plurals.

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Language Year 3.5

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Expanded grammatical forms: expresses concepts with words; uses four-word sentences.

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Language Year 4

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Uses imaginary speech; uses five-word sentences.

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Language Year 5

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Well-developed and complex syntax: uses more complex syntax; uses more complex forms to tell stories.

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Language Year 6

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Displays metalinguistic awareness.

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What did Sue Savage-Rumbaugh’s work demonstrate?

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Her work with Kanzi suggests that chimps are capable of some very basic language acquisition. (sign language skills)

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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

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one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought.

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What are the three problems proposed by Greeno? Give example of each.

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1. Problems of inducing structure (require people to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas)
2. Problems of arrangement (require people to arrange parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion)
3. Problems of transformation (require people to carry out a sequence of transformation in order to reach a specific goal)

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Functional Fixedness

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the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use.

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mental set

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exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past.

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unneccessary constraints

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hinder problem solving, because people assume constraints already exist when they try to solve their problem.

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problem space

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refers to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver.

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algorithm

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a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem.

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heuristic

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a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions.

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analogy

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may allow you to use a solution from a previous problem to solve the current problem.

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field dependent

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rely on external frames of reference and tend to accept the physical environment as a given instead of trying to analyze or restructure it.

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field independent

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rely on internal frames of reference and tend to analyze and try to restructure the physical environment rather than accepting it as it is.

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availability heuristic

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involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind.

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representativeness heuristic

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involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event.

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base rate neglect

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when people neglect base rate information.

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conjunction fallacy

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occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone; has attributed to the influence of the representativeness heuristic.

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Gamber's fallacy

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the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently; reflects the pervasive influence of the representativeness heuristic.

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to only seek information that is likely to support one’s decisions and beliefs.

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framing

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refers to how decision issues are posed or how choices are structured.

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inductive reasoning

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when you take one or more pieces of info to reason your way to a conclusion

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normative approach

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rational approach(how should we behave, what we ought to do! Used by economists)

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descriptive approach

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psychological approach (what do people really do)

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deductive reasoning

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figuring out (starting with general principles) answers that are more specific (ex: proofs, syllogisms)

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The Role of Prior Knowledge

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basing decisions and answers based off of prior knowledge

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state space

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the strange way psychs think about problem solving or how nodes are connected; includes the initial state (start), the goal state (trying to get to), and the current state (the node at present)

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backward chaining

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when you move the goal state toward the current state

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forward chaining

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when you move the current state toward the goal state

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What is the difference between experts and novices?

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Difference between the two is memory (experts recognize patterns and see meaningful patterns)

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Transformational Generative Grammar

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The goal of this was to create a grammar of symbolic rules capable of generating all the grammatical sentences of a language without also generating any ungrammatical sentences

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modularity hypothesis

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language understanding is carried out by special language “modules” that are not influenced by our other cognitive abilities.

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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

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The language that you speak determines how you perceive, think about, and remember the world around you.

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holistic style of thinking is one that focuses on

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context and relationships among the elements in a field

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phonemes

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Under 6 months of ages, infants produce more _____ than adults.