Psychology Exam 1

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The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior w/out reference to mental processes.

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behaviorism

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historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

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humanistic psychology

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the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked w/ cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

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cognitive neuroscience

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the science of behavior and mental processes

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psychology

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an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

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biopsychosocial approach

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How the body and brain enables emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

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Neuroscience

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How the natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes

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Evolutionary

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How much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

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Behavior genetics

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How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

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psychodynamic

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How we learn observable responses

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Behavioral

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How we encode, process, store, and retrieve info

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Cognitive

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How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

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Social-cultural

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branch of psychology that assists people with problems in livings and in achieving greater well-being

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counseling psychology

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branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

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clinical psychology

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a branch of medicine dealing w/ psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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psychiatry

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it

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hindsight bias

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thinking that doesn't blindly accept arguments and conclusions

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critical thinking

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an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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theory

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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hypothesis

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variable

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operational definition

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually w/ different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings extends to other participants and circumstances

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replication

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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case study

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

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survey

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all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

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population

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a sample that fairly represents a population b/c each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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random sample

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations w/out trying to manipulate and control the situation

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naturalistic observation

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the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

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correlation

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the perception of a relationship where none exists

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illusory correlation

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

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experiment

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assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences b/w those assigned to the different groups

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random assignment

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in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

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experimental group

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in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts w/ the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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control group

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experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

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double-blind procedure

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experimental results caused by expectations alone

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placebo effect

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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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independent variable

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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

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dependent variable

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enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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culture

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the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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behavior genetics

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every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

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environment

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threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

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chromosomes

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a complex molecule containing the genetic info that makes up the chromosomes

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DNA

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the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

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genes

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twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

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identical twins

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twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

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fraternal twins

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a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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temperament

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the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

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interaction

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the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes, suing the principles of natural selection

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evolutionary psychology

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the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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natural selection

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a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

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mutation

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in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

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gender

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an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

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norm

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the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

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personal space

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giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

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individualism

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giving priority to group goals (often those of the extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

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collectivism

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physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

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aggression

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the sex chromosome found in both men and women.

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X chromosome

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the sex chromosome found only in males. Cause we're awesome.

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Y chromosome

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the most important of the male sex hormones.

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testosterone

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a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

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role

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a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

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gender role

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our sense of being male or female

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gender identity

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the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

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gender typing

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

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social learning theory

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a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

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developmental psychology

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the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

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zygote

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the developing human organism from 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

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embryo

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the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

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fetus

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agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

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teratogens

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physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

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fetal alcohol syndrome

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biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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maturation

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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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cognition

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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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schema

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interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

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assimilation

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adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

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accommodation

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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sensorimotor stage

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the awarenesss that things continue to exist even when not perceived

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object permanence

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but doesn't yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

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preoperational stage

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the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

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conservation

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

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egocentrism

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people's ideas about their own and other's mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

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theory of mind

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

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concrete operational stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

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formal operational stage

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the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

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stranger anxiety

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an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

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attachment

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an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

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critical period

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the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

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imprinting

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a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

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basic trust

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the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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adolescence

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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

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puberty

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the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

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primary sex characteristics

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nonreproductive characteristics, such as females breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

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secondary sex characteristics

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the first menstrual period

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menarche

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our sense of self; the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

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identity

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the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

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social identity

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the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

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intimacy

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for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap b/w adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

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emerging adulthood

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the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

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menopause

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our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase w/ age

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crystallized intelligence

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our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

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fluid intelligence

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the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

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social clock

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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associative learning

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a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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classical conditioning

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior w/out reference to mental processes. Today, psychologists agree w/ 1 and not 2

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behaviorism

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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learning

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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neutral stimulus

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the stimulus

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unconditioned response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (CR)

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in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association w/ an unconditional stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

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acquisition

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a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired w/ a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

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higher-order conditioning

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

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extinction

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditional response

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spontaneous recovery

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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generalization

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish b/w a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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discrimination

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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learning

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learning that certain events occur together

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associative learning

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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respondent behavior

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforced or diminished if followed by a punisher

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operant conditioning

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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operant behavior

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely

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law of effect

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in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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operant chamber

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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shaping

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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reinforcer

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increasing behavior by presenting positive stimuli

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli

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negative reinforcement

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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primary reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its reinforcing power through its association w/ a primary reinforcer

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conditioned reinforcer

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elasped

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fixed-interval schedul

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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variable-interval schedule

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an event that decreases the behavior it follows

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punishment

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

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cognitive map

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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latent learning

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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learning

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learning by observing others

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observational learning

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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modeling

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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

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mirror neurons

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. Opposite of antisocial behavior

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prosocial behavior

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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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memory

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the processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting memory

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encoding

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the retention of encoded information over time

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storage

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the process of getting information out of memory storage

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retrieval

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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sensory memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

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short-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

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long-term memory

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a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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working memory

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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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automatic processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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effortful processing

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the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

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rehearsal

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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spacing effect

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our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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serial position effect

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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined w/ encoding

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imagery

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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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mnemonics

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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chunking

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory or auditory stimuli; is attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled w/in 3 or 4 seconds

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echoic memory

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an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

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long-term potentiation

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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flashbulb memory

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the loss of memory

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amnesia

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retention independent of conscious recollection

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implicit memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

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explicit memory

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a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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hippocampus

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

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recall

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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify previously learned

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recognition

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a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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relearning

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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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priming

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that eerie sense that "I've experience this before"

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deja vu

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent w/ one's current good or bad mood

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mood-congruent memory

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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retroactive interference

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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repression

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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misinformation effect

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

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source amnesia