Psychology - Chapter 2

Front 1

Nervous system

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is a network of cells that processes information through input, processing, and output functions. These functions allow cells in the nervous system to communicate with each other. These communication processes allow you to know what is going on both inside and outside your body, and allow you to make appropriate responses

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Neurons

Back 2

are the cells that make up the nervous system. Neurons can communicate with one another by receiving and sending signals. Three structures allow neurons to communicate: synapses; “excitable” (electrically polarized) membranes; and long, thin fibers that extend outward from the cell called axons and dendrites

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Glial cells

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hold neurons in place and help to sustain them

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Axons

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usually carry signals from the neuron cell body out to the synapse, where communication with other nerve cells takes place. Generally, each neuron has only one axon

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Dendrites

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are branches of the neuron that usually receive signals from the axons of other neurons and carry those signals to the neuron’s cell body. Each neuron can have many dendrites

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Action potentials

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are electrochemical signals that neurons use to communicate. When an action potential occurs, we say that the neuron has “fired.” Action potentials are all-or-nothing activities; the cell either fires at full strength or does not fire at al

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Refractory period

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is a rest period between action potentials. Following one action potential, the neuron is not capable of sending another action potential for a brief period. The time during which the cell cannot fire is called the refractory period

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Neurotransmitters

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are chemicals that carry a signal from the neuron firing an action potential to the neuron receiving that signal. The neurons do not actually touch each other, so the neurotransmitters travel across a tiny gap to carry the signal from one neuron to the next

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Synapse

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is the very small gap between the cell sending a message (firing an action potential) and the cell receiving that message. Typically, the axon is the presynaptic cell and the dendrite is the postsynaptic cell. Neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic cell cross the synapse and fit snugly into the receptors on the postsynaptic cell

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

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is the major division of the nervous system that is encased in bone and includes the brain and spinal cord. Its primary function is to process the information provided by the sensory systems and to decide on appropriate courses of action for the motor system

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Peripheral nervous system

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is the major division of the nervous system that is encased in bone and includes the brain and spinal cord. Its primary function is to process the information provided by the sensory systems and to decide on appropriate courses of action for the motor system

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Somatic nervous system

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which is part of the peripheral nervous system, transmits information from the senses to the CNS and carries signals from the CNS to the muscles that move the skeleton

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autonomic nervous system

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which is part of the peripheral nervous system, carries messages back and forth between the CNS and the organs and glands. The autonomic nervous system has two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

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Sympathetic nervous system

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which is part of the autonomic nervous system, prepares your body for action in the face of stress

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Paraspympathetic nervous system

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which is part of the autonomic nervous system, calms you down once you are finished dealing with a stressor. The parasympathetic nervous system complements the work of the sympathetic nervous system

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nuclei

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are collections of neuron cell bodies

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Fiber tracts

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(pathways or nerves) are collections of axons that travel together in bundles

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Spinal chord

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part of the central nervous system, receives signals from the somatic system in the periphery, such as vision, and relays them to the brain via fiber tracts within the spinal cord. The brain then relays signals to the muscles via fiber tracts in the spinal cord

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Reflexes

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are quick responses to incoming sensory information. The sensory information is processed in the spinal cord and the reflexive movement exits the nervous system and contacts the muscles. Reflexes are considered involuntary because the action occurs without instruction from the brain

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Hindbrain

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a major subdivision of the brain, includes the medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum. The hindbrain, an extension of the spinal cord, is housed in the skull and is involved in controlling vital functions

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Medulla

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is located in the hindbrain. It helps to regulate blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

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Reticular formation

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is not a well-defined area of brain tissue but is a collection of nuclei and fibers that form a network of cells throughout the hindbrain and midbrain. The reticular formation is involved in arousal and attention

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Cerebellum

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is located in the hindbrain. It controls fine motor coordination, helps the eyes track a moving target, and is associated with learning of and memory for well-rehearsed skills

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Midbrain

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is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Sensory information is integrated in the midbrain to produce the smooth initiation of movement

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forebrain

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is the most highly developed brain structure. It is responsible for the most complex aspects of behavior and mental processes such as memory, emotion, and decision making. The outer surface of the forebrain is the cerebral cortex

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Thalamus

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is located in the forebrain. This structure processes and relays sensory information on its way to higher centers of the brain

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Amygdala

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is part of the forebrain. It plays an important role in combining the features of stimuli from two sensory modalities

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Hypothalamus

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is located in the forebrain. It regulates hunger, thirst, and sex drives, and is involved in emotion

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Hippocampus

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is also part of the forebrain. It is involved in learning and storing new pieces of information or new memories

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Cerebral cortex

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is on the surface of the forebrain and contains two cerebral hemispheres. It is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The cortex is also divided into three functional areas: the sensory cortex, the motor cortex, and the association cortex

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Corpus callosum

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connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Without the corpus callosum, the two sides of the cerebral cortex could not communicate regarding their respective activities

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Sensory cortex

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located in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, receives information from different senses, including touch, vision, and hearing

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Motor cortex

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located in the frontal lobe, controls all voluntary movement.

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Association cortex

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exists in all lobes of the cortex. These regions of the cortex receive information from more than one sense or combine sensory and motor information. These are the areas that perform such complex cognitive tasks as associating words with images and other abstract thinking.

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Plasticity

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is the brain’s ability to strengthen neural connections at synapses and to establish new synapses

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Endocrine system

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The endocrine system is made up of cells that can communicate with one another. A wide variety of behaviors and mental processes are influenced by this system. Hormones, traveling via the bloodstream, affect coordinated systems of target tissues and organs by producing such responses as the fight or flight response/syndrome

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Glands

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the cells that make up the endocrine system, secrete hormones

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Hormones

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are chemicals that, when released by the glands of the endocrine system, travel via the bloodstream and communicate with other cells, thus influencing behavior and mental processes

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Fight-or-flight response

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caused by the release of hormones, is a coordinated set of responses to danger that prepares the organism for action. The heart beats faster, the liver releases glucose to be used as energy, and the organism is placed in a state of high arousal. In short, the organism is prepared to stay and fight or to flee very quickly