Psychology Chapter 2

Front 1

Neurons

Back 1

- nerve cells

- basic building blocks of nervous system

- specialized for transmitting information or messages in the form of electrical impulses

Front 2

Brain

Back 2

- the mass of nerve tissue encased in the skull that controls virtually everything we are and everything we do

Front 3

Soma

Back 3

- the cell body of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body toward other neurons

- houses the cell nucleus

- carries out metabolic functions

Front 4

Axon

Back 4

- tube-like part of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body toward other neurons

Front 5

Terminal Buttons

Back 5

- swellings at the tips of axons from which neurotransmitters are dispatched into the synapse

Front 6

Neurotransmitters

Back 6

- chemical messengers that transport neural impulses from one nerve cell to another

Front 7

Synapse

Back 7

- small fluid-filled gap between neurons through which neurotransmitters carry neural impulses

Front 8

Dendrites

Back 8

- root-like structures at the end of axons that receive neural impulses from neighboring neurons

Front 9

Sensory Neurons

Back 9

- neurons that transmit information from sensory organs, muscles, and inner organs to the spinal cord and brain

Front 10

Motor Neurons

Back 10

- "efferent neurons"

- neurons that convey neural impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands

Front 11

Glands

Back 11

- body organs or structures that produce secretions called hormones

Front 12

Hormones

Back 12

- secretions from endocrine glands that help regulate bodily processes

- from endocrine glands

Front 13

Interneurons

Back 13

- "associative neurons"

- nerve cells within the central nervous system that process information

- most common type of neuron

Front 14

Nerve

Back 14

- bundle of axons from different neurons that transmit neural impulses

Front 15

Glial Cells

Back 15

- small but numerous cells in the nervous system that support neurons and that form the myelin sheath found on many axons

Front 16

Myelin Sheath

Back 16

- a layer of protective insulation that covers the axons of certain neurons and helps transmission of neural impulses

Front 17

Nodes of Ranvier

Back 17

- gaps in the myelin sheath that create non-insulated areas along the axon

Front 18

Ions

Back 18

- electrically charged atoms and molecules

Front 19

Resting Potential

Back 19

- the electrical potential across the cell membrane of a neuron in its resting state

- one side has positive charge while one has a negative charge

Front 20

Depolarization

Back 20

- a positive shift in the electrical charge in the neurons resting potential making it less negatively charged

Front 21

Action Potential

Back 21

- "neural impulse"

- an abrupt change from a negative to a positive charge of a nerve cell

- travels down the axon

Front 22

All-or-None Principle

Back 22

- principle by which neurons will fire only when a change in the level of excitation occurs that is sufficient to produce an action potential

- they either fire completely or not at all

Front 23

Refractory Period

Back 23

- a temporary state in which a neuron is unable to fire in response to continued stimulation

Front 24

Receptor Site

Back 24

- a site on the receiving neuron in which neurotransmitters dock and lock into place

Front 25

Reuptake

Back 25

- process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed (recycled) by the transmitting neuron to be used again

Front 26

Enzymes

Back 26

- organic substances that produce certain chemical changes in other organic substances through a catalytic action

- break down neurotransmitters in the synapse

Front 27

Neuromodulators

Back 27

- chemicals released in the nervous system that influence the sensitivity ( increase or decrease) of the receiving neuron to neurotransmitters

Front 28

Antagonists

Back 28

- drugs that block the actions of neurotransmitters by occupying the receptor sites in which the neurotransmitters dock

Front 29

Schizophrenia

Back 29

- severe and chronic psychological disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior

Front 30

Hallucinations

Back 30

- perceptions (hearing voices/seeing things) that are experienced in the absence of external stimuli

Front 31

Delusions

Back 31

- fixed but false beliefs, such as believing that one is being hounded by demons

Front 32

Parkinson's Disease

Back 32

- progressive brain disease involving destruction of dopamine-producing brain cells and characterized by muscle tremors, shakiness, rigidity, and difficulty in walking and controlling fine body movement

Front 33

Agonists

Back 33

- drugs that either increase the availability or effectiveness of neurotransmitters or mimic their actions

Front 34

Stimulant

Back 34

- a drug that activates the central nervous system, such as amphetamines and cocaine

- caffeine increases the availability of a neurotransmitter called glutamate

Front 35

Amphetamines

Back 35

- a class of synthetically derived stimulant drugs, such as methamphetamine or "speed"

- increase the availability of the neurotransmitter dopamine

Front 36

Antidepressants

Back 36

- drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters

Front 37

Endorphins

Back 37

- natural chemicals released in the brain that have pain-killing and pleasure-inducing effects

Front 38

Nervous System

Back 38

- the network of nerve cells and support cells for communicating and processing information from within and outside the body

- conduct information in the form of neural impulses

- consists of CNS and PNS

Front 39

Central Nervous System

Back 39

- consists of the brain and spinal cord

Front 40

Spinal Cord

Back 40

- column of nerves that transmits information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system

Front 41

Spine

Back 41

- protective bony column that houses the spinal cord

Front 42

Reflex

Back 42

- an automatic, unlearned response to particular stimuli

Front 43

Spinal Reflex

Back 43

- reflex controlled at the level of the spinal cord that may involve as few as 2 neurons

- bypasses the brain

Front 44

Peripheral Nervous System

Back 44

- the part of the nervous system that connects the spinal cord and brain with the sensory organs, muscles, and glands

Front 45

Somatic Nervous System

Back 45

- part of the PNS that transmits information between the CNS and the sensory organs and muscles

- also controls voluntary movements

Front 46

Autonomic Nervous System

Back 46

- part of the PNS that automatically regulates involuntary bodily processes, such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

Front 47

Sympathetic Nervous System

Back 47

- branch of the autonomic nervous system that accelerates bodily processes and releases stores of energy needed to meet increased physical demands

Front 48

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Back 48

- branch of the autonomic nervous system that regulates bodily processes, such as digestion, that replenish stores of energy

Front 49

Hindbrain

Back 49

- lowest and oldest part of the brain

- includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Front 50

Medulla

Back 50

- structure in the hindbrain involved in regulating basic life functions, such as heartbeat and respiration

- transmit info from the spinal cord to the forebrain

Front 51

Pons

Back 51

- structure in the hindbrain involved in regulating states of wakefulness and sleep

- also transmit info from the spinal cord to the forebrain

Front 52

Brainstem

Back 52

- the "stalk" in the lower part of the brain that connects the spinal cord to higher regions of the brain

Front 53

Cerebellum

Back 53

- structure in the hindbrain involved in controlling coordination and balance

Front 54

Midbrain

Back 54

- lies on top of the hindbrain and below the forebrain

Front 55

Reticular Formation

Back 55

- web-like formation of neurons involved in regulating states of attention, alertness, and arousal

Front 56

Forebrain

Back 56

- the largest and uppermost part of the brain

- contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex

Front 57

Thalamus

Back 57

- serves as a relay station for sensory information that plays a key role in regulating states of wakefulness and sleep

Front 58

Basal Ganglia

Back 58

- an assemblage of neurons that is important in controlling movement and coordination

Front 59

Hypothalamus

Back 59

- small, pea sized structure that helps regulate many vital body functions, including body temperature and reproduction, as well as emotional state, aggression, and responses to stress

Front 60

Limbic System

Back 60

- formation of structures that includes the hippocampus, amygdalia, and parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus

- emotional processing, motivated behavior, learning and memory functions

Front 61

Cerebral Cortex

Back 61

- wrinkled outer layer of grey matter that covers the cerebral hemispheres

- higher mental functions including thinking, language, learning, memory, emotions, and control of voluntary movement

Front 62

Corpus Callosum

Back 62

- bundle of nerve fibers that connect the 2 cerebral hemispheres

Front 63

Amygdala

Back 63

- set of almond-shaped structures in the limbic system believed to play an important role in aggresion, rage, and fear

Front 64

Hippocampus

Back 64

- involved in memory function

Front 65

Cerebrum

Back 65

- largest mass of the forebrain consisting of 2 cerebral hemispheres

Front 66

Cerebral Hemispheres

Back 66

- the right and left masses of the cerebrum

Front 67

Occipital Lobes

Back 67

- parts of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of both cerebral hemispheres, that process visual stimuli

Front 68

Parietal Lobes

Back 68

- parts of the cerebral cortex, located on the side of each cerebral hemisphere, that process bodily sensations

- touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

Front 69

Somatosensory Cortex

Back 69

- part of the parietal lobe that processes information about touch and pressure on the skin, as well as the position of the parts of our bodies as we move about

Front 70

Frontal Lobes

Back 70

- control motor responses and higher mental functions, such as thinking, planning, problem solving, decision making, and accessing and acting on stored memories

Front 71

Motor Cortex

Back 71

- a region of the frontal lobes involved in regulating body movement

Front 72

Mirror Neurons

Back 72

- neurons that fire both when an action is performed and when the same action is merely observed

Front 73

Temporal Lobes

Back 73

- process auditory information, giving rise to sensations of sound

Front 74

Association areas

Back 74

- areas of the cerebral cortex that piece together sensory information to form meaningful perceptions of the world and perform higher mental functions

Front 75

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 75

- a device that records electrical activity in the brain

Front 76

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan

Back 76

- a computer-enhanced imaging technique in which an X-ray beam is passed through the body at different angles to generate a 3D image of bodily strutures

Front 77

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

Back 77

- an imaging technique in which a radioactive sugar tracer is injected into the bloodstream and used tog measure levels of activity of various parts of the brain

Front 78

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Back 78

- technique that uses a magnetic field to create a computerized image of internal bodily structures

Front 79

Lesioning

Back 79

- the intentional destruction of brain tissue in order to observe the effects on behavior

Front 80

Electrical Recording

Back 80

- a process of recording the electrical changes that occur in a specific neuron or groups of neurons in the brain in relation to particular activities or behaviors

Front 81

Electrical Stimulation

Back 81

- process of electrically stimulating particular parts of the brain to observe the effects on behavior

Front 82

Lateralization

Back 82

- refers to the division of functions between the right and left hemispheres

Front 83

Broca's Area

Back 83

- area of the left frontal lobe involved in speech

Front 84

Wernicke's Area

Back 84

- an area of the left temporal lobe involved in processing written and spoken language

Front 85

Aphasia

Back 85

- loss or impairment of the ability to understand or express language

Front 86

Epilepsy

Back 86

- neurological disorder characterized by seizures that involve sudden, violent discharges of electrical activity in the brain that causes seizures

Front 87

Split-Brain Patients

Back 87

- people with a corpus callosum that has been surgically severed

Front 88

Prefrontal Cortex

Back 88

- area of the frontal lobe that lies in front of the motor cortex and that is involved in higher mental functions, including thinking, planning, impulse control, and weighing the consequences of behavior

Front 89

Plasticity

Back 89

- ability of the brain to adapt itself after trauma or surgical alteration

Front 90

Endocrine System

Back 90

- the body's system of glands that release their secretions called hormones, directly into the bloodstream

- regulates processes like growth, reproduction, and metabolism

Front 91

Pancreas

Back 91

- endocrine gland located near the stomach that produces the hormone insulin

- regulates the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood

Front 92

Homeostasis

Back 92

- the tendency of systems to maintain a steady, internally balanced state

Front 93

Pituitary Gland

Back 93

- endocrine gland in the brain that produces various hormones involved in growth, regulation of the menstrual cycle, and childbirth

Front 94

Pineal Gland

Back 94

- small endocrine gland in the brain that produces the hormone melatonin, which is involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles

Front 95

Adrenal Glands

Back 95

- pair of endocrine glands located just above the kidneys that produce various stress-related hormones

Front 96

Thyroid Gland

Back 96

- an endocrine gland in the neck that secretes the hormone thyroxin, which is involved in regulating metabolic functions and physical growth

Front 97

Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

Back 97

- a cluster of physical and psychological symptoms occurring in the few days preceding the menstrual flow

Front 98

Genotype

Back 98

- an organisms genetic code

Front 99

Genes

Back 99

- basic units of heredity that contain an individuals genes

Front 100

Nature-Nurture Debate

Back 100

- the debate in psychology about the relative influences of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in determining behavior

Front 101

Phenotype

Back 101

- the observable physical and behavioral characteristics of an organism representing the influences of the genotype and environment

Front 102

Polygenic Traits

Back 102

- traits that are influenced by multiple genes interacting in complex ways

Front 103

Familial Associations Studies

Back 103

- studies that examine the degree to which disorders or characteristics are shared among family members

Front 104

Identical vs. Fraternal Twins

Back 104

- Identical: twins who developed from the same zygote and have identical genes. Monozygotic

- Fraternal: twins who developed from separate zygotes and have 50% of genes in common. Dizygotic

Front 105

Zygote

Back 105

- a fertilized egg

Front 106

Concordance Rates

Back 106

- in twin studies, the percentage of cases in which both members of twin pairs share the same trait of disorder

Front 107

Adoptee Studies

Back 107

- studies that examine whether adoptees are more similar to their biological or adoptive parents with respect to their psychological traits or to the disorders they develop