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70 Cards in this Set

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emotion
-mental, physical, and behavioral state associated with our evaluation of our experiences
-mental states or feelings associated with our evaluation of our experiences
-often have physical and behavioral responses assoicated with them as well
discrete emotions theory
-theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions
-humans experience a small number of distinct emotions
primary emotion
-one of a small number (perhaps seven) of emotions believed by some theorists to be cross-culturally universal
-a small number (perhaps seven) are cross culturaly universal
-happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, discust, fear, contempt
display rule
-one of the cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
-different cultures guidelines for how and when to express emotions
cognitive theory of emotion
-theory proposing that emotions are products of thinking
-what we feel in response to a situation is determined by how we interpret it
-ex. if we a=see an upcoming job interview as a potential catastrophe, we'll be hopelessly stressed out; if we see it as a healthy challenge, we'll be appropriately geared up for it
james-Lange theory of emotion
-theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli
-emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli
-ex.imagine that, while hiking through the forest, we come upon a bear. what happens next? common wisdom tells us that we first become scared and then run away. yet James recognized that, the link between our fear and running away is only a correlation; this link doesn't demonstrate that our fear causes us to run away. indeed, James and Lange argued that the causal arrow is reversed: we're afraid because we run away. that is, we observe our physiological and behavioral reactions to a stimulus, in this case our hearts pounding, our palms sweating, and our feet running, and then conclude that we must have been scared
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
-theory proposing that an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotion and to bodily reactions
-an emotion provoking event leads simultaneously to both an emotion and bodily reactions
-to return to James's example, Cannon and Bard would say that when we see a bear while hiking in the forest, the sight of that bear triggers both fear(the emotion) and running (the reaction) at the same time
two-factor theory
-theory proposing that emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with an attribution (explanation) of that arousal
-two psychological events are required to produce an emotion
mere exposure effect
-phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it
-repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel positive emotion toward it
facial feedback hypothesis
-theory that blood vessels in the face feed back temperature information to the brain, altering our experience of emotions
-you're likely to feel emotions that correspond to your facial expressions
-ex. researchers asked subjects to rate how funny they found various cartoons. They randomly assigned some subjects to watch cartoons while holding a a pen with their teeth which forced their mouths into a smile and others to watch cartoons while holding a pen with their lips which forced their mouths into a frown. Subjects who held a pen with their teeth rated the cartoons as funnier than did other subjects
nonverbal leakage
-unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behavior
-an unconscious spillover of emotions into a nonverbal behavior
-often powerful cue that we are trying to hide and emotion
-ex. our postures can convey a lot about our emotional states. Slumped posture can convey sadness and upright posture can convey happiness or excitement, although an upright posture involving a lot of body tension may also convey anger.
-when interpreting the emotional states of others, we typically take both facial and body information into account
positive psychology
-discipline that has sought to emphasize human strengths
-ex. resilience, coping, life satisfaction, love and happiness
broaden and build theory
-theory proposing that that happiness predisposes us to think more openly, allowing us to see the "big picuture" we might have otherwise overlooked
affective forecasting
-ability to predict our own and others happiness
durability bias
-belief that both our good and bad moods will last longer than they do
defensive pessimism
-strategy of anticipating failure and then compensating for this expectation by mentally overpreparing for negative outcomes
-helps certain peopleto improve their performance, probably because it encourages them to work harder
stress
-the tension, discomfort, or physical symptoms that arise when a situation strains our ability to cope effectively
problem-focused coping
-coping strategy by which we tackle life's challenges head-on, generating specific ideas about ways to fix the situation or alter the environment
emotion-focused coping
-coping strategy that features a positive outlook on feelings or situations accompanied by behaviors that reduce painful emotions
-a coping strategy in which we try to place a positive spin on our feelings or predicaments and engage in behaviors to reduce painful emotions
-ex. after the breakup of a relationship, we may make a concerted effort to socialize and meet potential partners or remind ourselves that we were unhappy months before the breakup occurred
corticosteroids
-stress hormones that activate the body and prepare us to respond to stressful circumstances
-ex. depression, hopelessness, hositility, physiological responses such as the heart rate, blood pressure
hassle
-minor annoyance or nuisance that strains our ability to cope
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
-stress-response pattern proposed by Hans Selye that consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
fight-or-flight response
-physical and psychological reaction that mobilizes people and animals to either defend themselves (fight) or escape (flee) a threatening situation
-a set of physiological or psychological reactions that mobilize us to either confront or leave a threatening situation
tend and befriend
-reaction that mobilizes people to nurture (tend) or seek social support (befriend) under stress
-describes a common pattern of reacting to stress among women, although some men display it too
-in times of stress, women generally rely on their social contacts and nurturing abilities more than men do. when stressed women also turn to others for support
immune system
-our body's defense system against invading bacteria, viruses, and other potentially illness-producing organisms and substances
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
-a life threatening, incurable, yet treatable condition in which the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks and damages he immune system
psychoneuroimmunology
-study of the relationship between the immune system and cental nervous system
psychophysiological
-illnesses like asthma and ulcers in which emotions and stress contribute to, maintain, or aggravate the physical condition
biopsychosocial perspective
-the view that an illness or medical condition is the product of the interplay of biological, psychologcal, and social factor
-proposes that most medical conditions are neither all physical nor all psychological
coronary heart disease (CHD)
-damage to the heart from the complete or partial blockage of the arteries that provide oxygen to the heart
-is the number one cause of death and disability in the United States
-CHD develops when deposits of cholesterol collect in the walls of arteries, narrowing and blocking the coronary arteries, creating a condition called atherosclerosis
Type A personality
-personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious
social support
-relationships with people and groups that can provide us with emotional comfort and personal and financial resources, and information to make decisions, solve problems, and contend with stressful situations
hardiness
-set of attitudes marked by a sense of control over events, commitment to life and work, and courage and motivation to confront stressful events
-Hardy people who view change as a challenge rather than a threat, are committed to their life and work, and believe they can control events. Hardy individuals have the courage to confront stressors and engage in problem solving to contend with them
spirituality
-search for the sacred, which may or may not extend to belief in God
social psychology
-study of how people influence others' behavior, beliefs, and attitudes
-helps us to understand not only why we sometimes act helpfully and even heroically in the presence of others, but also why we occasionally show our worst sides, caving in to group pressure or standing by idly while others suffer. It also helps us to understand why we're prone to blindly accept irrational even pseudoscientific, beliefs
social facilitation
-enhancement of performance brought about by the presence of others
attribution
- assigning causes to behavior
-when we try to figure out why other people, or indeed we ourselves, did something
-some attributions are internal (inside the person), such as when we conclude that Joe Smith robbed a bank because he's impulsive.
-some attributions are external (outside the person), such as when we conclude that Bill Jones robbed a bank because his family was broke
fundamental attribution error
-tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences on other people's behavior. by dispositional influences, we mean enduring characteristics, such as personality traits, attitudes, and intelligence. Because of this error we, we attribute too much of people's behavior to who they are and too little of their behavior to what's going on around them
social compassion theory
-we evaluate our beliefs, abilities, and reactions by comparing them with those of others
-doing so helps us to understand ourselves and our social worlds better
-ex. if you want to find out whether you're a good psychology student, it's only natural to compare your exam performance with that of your classmates
mass hysteria
-outbreak of irrational behavior that is spread by social contagion
-a contagious outbreak of irrational behavior that spreads much like a flue epidemic
conformity
-tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure
-we all conform to social pressure from time to time
deindividuation
-tendency of people to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when they are stripped of their usual identities
groupthink
-emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking and sound decision making
-groups sometimes become so intent on ensuring that everyone agrees with everyone else tat they give up their capacity to evaluate issues objectively
cult
-group of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause
inoculation effect
-approach to convincing people to change their minds about something by first introducing reasons why the perspective might be correct and then debunking it
-demonstrated that the best way of immunizing people against an undesirable belief is to gently introduce them to reasons why this belief seems to be correct and then refute those reasons
-ex. if we want to persuade someone that sleep learning doesn't work, we might point out that it is true that the brain remains very active during sleep so it's possible that learning could take place. this inoculation makes people more receptive then learning that there is no evidence to support the idea that we can learn in our sleep
obedience
-adherence to instructions from those of higher authority
-we take our matching orders from people who are above us in hierarchy of authority, such as a teacher, parent, or boss
pluralistic ignorance
-error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do
diffusion of responsibility
-reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others
-the presence of others makes each person feel less responsible for the outcome
-ex. if you don't assist someone who's having a heart attack and that perosn later dies, you can always say to yourself, "well, that's a terrible tragedy, but it wasn't really my fault. after all, plenty of other people could have helped too."
social loafing
-phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups
-phenomenon in which people slack off in groups
altruism
-helping others for unselfish reasons
aggression
-behavior intended to harm others, either verbally or physically
relational aggression
-form of indirect aggression, prevalent in girls, involving spreading rumors, gossiping, and nonverbal putdowns for the purpose of social manipulation
belief
-conclusion regarding factual evidence
attitude
-belief that includes an emotional component
-an attitude reflects how you feel about an issue or person
-attitudes are an important part of our social world because they're shaped in significant ways by the people around us
self-monitoring
-personality trait that assesses the extent to which people's behavior reflects their true feelings and attitudes
cognitive dissonance
-unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs
-we alter our attitudes when we experience an unpleasant state of tension between two or more conflicting thoughts
impression management theory
-theory that we don't really change our attitudes, but report that we have so that our behaviors appear consistent with them
-proposes that we don't really change our attitudes in cognitive dissonance studies; we only tell the experimenters we have. We do so because we don't want to appear inconsistent
foot-in-the-door technique
-persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one
door-in-the-face technique
-persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request befor emaking the small request we're hoping to have granted
low-ball-technique
-persuasive technique in which the seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price and then mentions all of the "add-on" costs once the customer has agreed to purchase the product
prejudice
-drawing conclusions about a person, group of people, or situation prior to evaluating the evidence
-to arrive at a conclusion before we've evaluated all of the evidence.
in-group bias
-tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group
-if you've ever watced a sporting event, you've observed in-group bias: thousands of screaming fans cheering their home team wildly and booing the visiting team with equal gusto, even though most of these fans have no financial stake in the game's outcome. Yet the home team is their "tribe," and they'll happily spend several hors out of their day to cheer them on against their mortal enemy.
out-group homogeneity
-tendency to view all individuals outside out group as highly similar
-makes it easy for us to dismiss all members of other groups in one fell swoop because we can simply tell ourselves that they all share at least one undesirable characteristic.
discrimination
-negative behavior toward members of out-groups
-the act of treating members of out-groups differently form members of in-groups
-refers to behaviors towards others
stereotype
-a belief, postive or negative, about the characteristics of members of a group that is applied generally to most members of the group
implicit and explicit stereotype
-belief about the characteristics of an out-group about which we're either unaware (implicit) or aware (explicit)
-implicit stereotypes are those of which we're unaware
-explicit stereotypes are those of which we're aware
ultimate attribution error
-assumption that behaviors among individual members of a group are due to their internal dispositions
-the mistake of attributing the behavior of entire groups-like women, Christians, or African Americans-to their dispositions
scapegoat hypothesis
-claim that prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes
-prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes.
just-world hypothesis
-claim that our attributions and behaviors are shaped by a deep-seated assumption that the world is fair and all things happen for a reason
-implies that many of us have a deep-seated need to perceive the world as fair-to believe that all things happen for a reason
jigsaw classroom
-educational approach designed to minimize prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project
-in which teachers assign children separate tasks that all need to be fitted together to complete a project.
-a teacher might give each student in a class a different piece of history to investigate regarding the U.S. Civil War. One might present on Virginia's role, another on New York's, another on Georgia's, and sonon. The students then cooperate to assemble the pieces into an integrated lesson. Numerous studies reveal that jigsaw classrooms result in significant decreases in racial prejudice.