Psychology Ch 7

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Cognitive Psychology

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Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem-solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making

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Mental Images

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Representations in the mind of an object or event

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Concepts

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Categorizationsof objects, events, or people that share common properties

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Prototypes

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•Highly representative examples of a concept •Example:•Vehicle, Bird

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Algorithm

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Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem

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Heuristic

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Cognitive shortcuts that may lead to a solution

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•Representativeness heuristic

•Availability heuristic

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•Ruleone applies when he judges people by the degree to which they represent acertain category or group of people

•Judgingthe probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can berecalled from memory

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3 steps of solving problems

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1.preparing to create the solutions

2.producing solutions•

3.evaluating the solutions

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Well-defined Problem

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Both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear (ex. Mathematical equation)

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ill-defined Problem

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Not only the specific nature of the problem is unclear, but the information required to solve the problem is less obvious (peace in the Middle East)

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3Kinds of Problems

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1.Arrangementproblems

2.Problemsof inducing structure

3.Transformationproblems

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1.Arrangement problems:

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requiresthe solver to rearrange elements to satisfy a criterion

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2.Problems of inducing structure

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aperson must identify the relationship among the elements presented andconstruct a new relationship

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3.Transformation problems

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consists of initial stage, goal and a method for changing the initial state into a goal state

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•Means-endAnalysis

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•Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists

•Most frequently applied heuristic in problem-solving. Each step brings the person closer to the solution.

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Forming Subgoals

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•DividingProblems into Their Parts

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Insight:

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SuddenAwareness•WolfgangKöhler

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3. Judgment

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Evaluating the Solutions

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Functional Fixedness

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Tendencyto think of an object only in terms of its typical use

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Mental Set

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Tendency for old patterns of problem-solving to persist

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•Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem?

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•Inaccurate evaluation of solutions

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•Confirmation bias

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•Problemsolvers favor initial hypotheses and ignore contradictory information thatsupports alternative hypotheses or solutions

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•Creativity

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•Abilityto generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways

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•Divergentthinking

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•Abilityto generate unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions

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•Convergent thinking

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•Producesresponses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic •

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Thinking Critically and Creatively(8)

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Redefineproblems

Use subgoals

Adopta critical perspective

Considerthe opposite

Useanalogies

Thinkdivergently

Useheuristics

Experimentwith various solutions

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Language

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•Communicationof information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

•theability to communicate with individuals of your culture.•

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•Grammar

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–System of rules that determines howour thoughts can be expressed

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•Phonology

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–Smallest basic units of speech»Phonemes

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•Syntax

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–Rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences

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Semantics

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–Meanings of words and sentences

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•Babbling

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Speechlike but meaningless sounds •Critical period

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•Production of Language

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Telegraphic speech –Overgeneralization

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Stagesof language development:

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cooing,babbling, one-word speech and telegraphic speech.

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1-3months

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Infant can distinguish speech from nonspeech sounds and prefers speech sounds (phonemes). Undifferentiated crying gives way to cooing when happy.

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4-6months

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Babblingsounds begin to occur. These contain sounds from virtually every language.Child vocalizes in response to verbalizations of others.

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7-11months

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Babblingsounds narrow to include only the phonemes heard in the language spoken byothers in the environment. Child discriminates between some words withoutunderstanding their meaning and begins to imitate word sounds heard fromothers.

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12months

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First recognizable words typically spoken as one-word utterances to name familiar people and objects.

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12-18 months

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Childincreases knowledge of word meanings and begins to use single words to expresswhole phrases or requests.

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18-24 months

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Vocabularyexpands to between 50 and 100 words. First rudimentary sentences appear,usually consisting of two words with little or no use of articles (the, a). This condensed, or telegraphicspeech is characteristic of first sentences throughout the world.

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Learning theory approach

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The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcements and conditioning.

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nativist approach

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the theory that genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development.

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–Interactionistapproach

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•Genetically determinedpredispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language

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•Linguistic-relativityhypothesis

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–Notion that language shapes and, infact, may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive andunderstand the world

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Wernicke’s area

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in thetemporal lobe, is primarily involved in speech comprehension.

Damageto this cortical region leaves patients unable to understand written or spokenspeech.

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Broca’s area

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in thefrontal lobe, is mainly involved in the production of speech through itsconnections with the motor cortex region that controls the muscles used inspeech.

Damageto this area leaves patients with the ability to comprehend speech, but not toexpress themselves in words or sentences.

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Intelligence:

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Theability to acquire knowledge, think logically, and to use resourceseffectively.

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g-factor

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Thesingle, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence insome early theories of intelligence.

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Fluid Intelligence

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Intelligence that reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory.

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Crystallized Intelligence

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Theaccumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned throughexperience and can be applied in problem-solving situations.

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Fluid intelligence

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•intelligence—consideredone of the most important factors in learning—applies to all problems whilecrystallized intelligence consists of skills useful for specific tasks

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Gardner: 8 types of intelligence

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Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner (2003) believes that intelligence may be more broadly conceived as relatively independent intelligences that relate to different adaptive demands

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Linguistic intelligence:

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theability to use language well, as writers do.

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Logical-mathematical intelligence:

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theability to reason mathematically and logically.

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Visuospatial intelligence

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theability to solve spatial problems or to succeed in a field such asarchitecture.

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Musical intelligence:

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theability to perceive pitch and rhythm and to understand and produce music.

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Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

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theability to control body movements and skillfully manipulate objects, asdemonstrated by a highly skilled dancer, athlete, or surgeon.

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Interpersonal intelligence:

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theability to understand and relate well to others.

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Intrapersonal intelligence

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:the ability to understand oneself.

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Naturalistic intelligence:

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theability to detect and understand phenomena in the natural world, as a zoologistor meteorologist might.

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Sternberg: Three types of intelligence

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1.Analytical Intelligence.

2.Practical intelligence

3.Creative intelligence

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1.Analytical Intelligence

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involves academically oriented problem-solving skills measured by traditional intelligence tests.

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1.Practical intelligence

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1.Practical intelligence refersto the skills needed to cope with everyday demands and to manage oneself andother people effectively.

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Creative intelligence

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Creative intelligence comprises the mental skills needed to deal adaptively with novelproblems

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EmotionalIntelligence

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Involvesthe ability to read others’ emotions accurately, to respond tothem appropriately, to motivate oneself, to be aware of one’s own emotions, and to regulate andcontrol one’s own emotional responses (Mayeret al., 2004).

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branch one

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Perceivingemotions ismeasured by people’s accuracy in judging emotionalexpressions in facial photographs, as well as the emotional tones conveyed bydifferent landscapes and designs.

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branch 2

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Using emotions to facilitate thought is measured by asking people to identify the emotions that would best enhance a particular type of thinking, such as how to deal with a distressed coworker or plan a birthday party.

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branch 3

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Understanding emotions is measured by asking people to specify the conditions under which their emotions change in intensity or type; or measuring people’s understanding of which basic emotions blend to create subtle emotions such as envy or jealousy.

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branch 4

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Managingemotions ismeasured by asking respondents to indicate how they can change their own orothers’ emotions to facilitate success orincrease interpersonal harmony.

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Artificial Intelligence

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theattempt to create machines that think like humans

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DevelopmentalPsychology

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•Study of the patterns of growth andchange that occur throughout life

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•Nature-nurture issue

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•Developmental psychologiststypically take an interactionist position

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•Cross-sectional Research

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•Compares people of different agesat the same point in time•Differences among groups of people

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•Longitudinal Research

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•Traces the behavior of one or more participants as the participants age •Change in behavior over time

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•Sequential Research

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•Combines cross-sectional andlongitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups andexamining them at several points in time

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Germinal Period

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•Zygote•Fertilized egg•First two weeks

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•Embryonic Period

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•Embryo•Weeks 2 through 8

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•Fetal Period

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•Fetus•Week 8 until birth

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•Age of viability

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•Point at which it can survive ifborn prematurely•About prenatal age 22 weeks•Sensitive periods (criticalperiods)

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•Genetic Influences on the Fetus

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•Phenylketonuria (PKU)•Sickle-cell anemia•Tay-Sachsdisease•Down Syndrome

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•Prenatal Environmental Influences

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•Teratogens•Mother’snutrition•Mother’sillness•Mother’semotional state•Mother’s useof drugs•Alcohol •Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)•Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)•Nicotine use

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•Reflexes

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•Unlearned, involuntary responsesthat occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli•Rooting reflex•Sucking reflex•Gag reflex•Startle reflex•Babinski reflex

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•Habituation

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•Decrease in the response to astimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

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•Attachment

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•The positive emotional bond thatdevelops between a child and a particular individual •Konrad Lorenz•Imprinting

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•Assessing Attachment•Mary Ainsworth

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•Ainsworth strange situation •Securely attached •Avoidant •Ambivalent •Disorganized-disoriented

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Parenting Styles and SocialDevelopment

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•Authoritarian•Permissive•Authoritative•Uninvolved

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•Erikson’sTheory of Psychosocial Development

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•Trust-versus-mistrust stage•Birth – 1½ years of age•Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubtstage •1½ – 3 years of age•Initiative-versus-guilt stage•3 – 6 years of age•Industry-versus-inferiority stage•6 – 12 years of age

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•Erickson’sFirst Four Stages

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•0-1 year, Basic trust vs. Mistrust: Child learns to feel comfortable and trust parents care; or develops a deep distrust of the world that is perceived to be unsafe. • •1-3 years, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Learns sense of competence by learning to feed self, use toilet, play alone; or feels ashamed and doubts own abilities. • •3-5 years, Initiative vs. Guilt: Gains ability to use own initiative in planning and carrying out plans; or cannot live within parents’ limits, develops a sense of guilt over misbehavior. • •5-11 years, Industry vs. Inferiority: Learns to meet the demands imposed by school and home responsibilities; or comes to believe that he or she is inferior to others.

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•Piaget’sTheory of Cognitive Development

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•Sensorimotor stage•Birth to 2 years of age•Object permanence

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•Preoperational stage

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•2 to 7 years of age•Egocentric thought •Principle of conservation

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Concrete operational stage

Formal operational stage

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•7 to 12 years of age •Reversibility

•12 years of age to adulthood •Abstract, formal, and logical thinking

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•Metacognition

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•An awareness and understanding ofone’s owncognitive processes

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•Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’sTheory

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•ZPD is the level at which a childcan almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own. Whenchildren receive information that falls within the ZPD, they can increaseunderstanding or master a new task.

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•Kohlberg’sTheory of Moral Development

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•Three-level sequence•Judgments, not moral behavior•Moral development in women

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•Kohlberg’sThree Levels of Moral Development

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1)Premoral Level: Children do not understandmorality as a normal adult, and instead make moral judgments based on obtainingrewards or avoiding punishments.•2) Conventional Level: Childrenbegin to make moral decisions based on what they think others will think ofthem, especially their parents’ideas of societal rules.•3) Principled Level: Actions arejudged on the basis of ethical principles rather than personal consequences.

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Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’sFive Stages

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•Denial•Anger•Bargaining•Depression•Acceptance

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•Theories of Aging

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Cellular Clock Theory: All humans havecells, the “clock” isthe number of regenerations and divisions cells can undergo before cell growthslows and eventually stops.•Wear and Tear Theory: Effects of agingare caused by damage done to cells and body systems over time essentially being“worn out" due to use. Once they wearout, they can no longer function correctly.•Free-radical Theory: Organisms agebecause cells accumulate free radical damage with the passage of time.