Psychology (Ch. 4, 5, 6)

Front 1

Sensory analysis

Back 1

Separation of sensory information into important elements.

Front 2

Perceptual features

Back 2

Basic elements of a stimulus, such as lines, shapes, edges, or colors.

Front 3

Sensory coding

Back 3

Codes used by the sense organs to transmit information to the brain.

Front 4

Sensation

Back 4

A sensory impression; also, the process of detecting physical energies with the sensory organs.

Front 5

Perception

Back 5

The mental process of organizing sensations into meaningful patterns.

Front 6

Size constancy

Back 6

The perceived size of an object remains constant, despite changes in its retinal image.

Front 7

Shape constancy

Back 7

The perceived shape of an object is unaffected by changes in its retinal image.

Front 8

Brightness constancy

Back 8

The apparent (or relative) brightness of objects remains the same as long as they are illuminated by the same amount of light.

Front 9

Figure-ground organization

Back 9

Part of a stimulus appears to stand out as an object (figure) against a less prominent background (ground).

Front 10

Perceptual hypothesis

Back 10

An initial guess regarding how to organize (perceive) a stimulus pattern.

Front 11

Depth perception

Back 11

The ability to see three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances.

Front 12

Depth cues

Back 12

Perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimensional space.

Front 13

Stereoscopic vision

Back 13

Perception of space and depth caused chiefly by the fact that the eyes receive different images.

Front 14

Pictorial depth cues

Back 14

Features found in paintings, drawings, and photographs that impart infomation about space, depth, and distance.

Front 15

Apparent-distance hypothesis

Back 15

An explanation of the moon illusion stating that the horizon seems more distnant than the sky.

Front 16

Perceptual reconstruction

Back 16

A mental model of external events.

Front 17

Perceptual learning

Back 17

Changes in perception that can be attributed to prior experience; a result of changes in how the brain processes sensory information.

Front 18

Illusion

Back 18

A misleading or distorted perception.

Front 19

Hallucination

Back 19

An imaginary sensation - such as seeing, hearing, or smelling something that does not exist in the external world.

Front 20

Müller-Lyer illusion

Back 20

Two equal-length lines tipped with inward or outward pointing V's appear to be of different lengths.

Front 21

Bottom-up processing

Back 21

Organizing perceptions by beginning with low-level features.

Front 22

Top-down processing

Back 22

Applying higher level knowledge to rapidly organize sensory information into a meaningful perception.

Front 23

Perceptual expectancy (or set)

Back 23

A readiness to perceive in a particular manner, induced by strong expectations.

Front 24

Extrasensory perception

Back 24

The purported ability to perceive events in ways that cannot be explained by known capacities of the sensory organs.

Front 25

Psi phenomena

Back 25

Events that seem to lie outside the realm of accepted scientific laws.

Front 26

Reality testing

Back 26

Obtaining additional information to check on the accuracy of perceptions.

Front 27

Habituation

Back 27

A decrease in perceptual response to a repeated stimulus.

Front 28

Dishabituation

Back 28

A reversal of habituation.

Front 29

Consciousness

Back 29

Mental awareness of sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings.

Front 30

Altered state of consciousness (ASC)

Back 30

A condition of awareness distinctly different in quality or pattern from waking consciousness.

Front 31

Biological rhythm

Back 31

Any repeating cycle of biological activity, such as sleep and waking cycles or changes in body temperature.

Front 32

Microsleep

Back 32

A brief shift in brain-wave patterns to those of sleep.

Front 33

Sleep deprivation

Back 33

Being prevented from getting desired or needed amounts of sleep.

Front 34

Sleep-deprivation psychosis

Back 34

A major disruption of mental and emotional functioning brought about by sleep loss.

Front 35

Sleep hormone

Back 35

A sleep-promoting substance found in the brain and spinal cord.

Front 36

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 36

A device designed to detect, amplify, and record electrical activity in the brain.

Front 37

Beta waves

Back 37

Small, fast brain waves associated with being awake and alert.

Front 38

Alpha waves

Back 38

Large, slow brain waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep.

Front 39

Sleep stages

Back 39

Levels of sleep identified by brain-wave patterns and behavioral change.

Front 40

Light sleep

Back 40

Stage 1 sleep, marked by small, irregular brain waves and some alpha waves.

Front 41

Sleep spindles

Back 41

Distinctive bursts of brain-wave activity that indicate a person is asleep.

Front 42

Delta waves

Back 42

Large, slow brain waves that occur in deeper sleep (stages 3 and 4)

Front 43

Deep sleep

Back 43

Stage 4 sleep; the deepest form of normal sleep

Front 44

Rapid eye movements (REMs)

Back 44

Swift eye movements during sleep.

Front 45

REM sleep

Back 45

Sleep marked by rapid eye movements and a return to stage 1 EEG patterns.

Front 46

NREM sleep

Back 46

Non-rapid eye movement sleep characteristic of stages 2, 3, and 4.

Front 47

Insomnia

Back 47

Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep.

Front 48

Stimulus control

Back 48

Linking a particular response with specific stimuli.

Front 49

Somnambulism

Back 49

Sleepwalking; occurs during NREM sleep.

Front 50

Sleeptalking

Back 50

Speaking that occurs during NREM sleep.

Front 51

Nightmare

Back 51

A bad dream that occurs during REM sleep.

Front 52

Night terror

Back 52

A state of panic during NREM sleep.

Front 53

Sleep apnea

Back 53

Repeated interruption of breathing during sleep.

Front 54

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

Back 54

The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant.

Front 55

REM rebound

Back 55

The occurrence of extra rapid eye movement sleep following REM sleep deprivation.

Front 56

Psychodynamic theory

Back 56

Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.

Front 57

Dream symbols

Back 57

Images in dreams that serves as visible signs of hidden ideas, desires, impulses, emotions, relationships, and so forth.

Front 58

Activation-synthesis hypothesis

Back 58

An attemtpt to explain how dream content is affected by motor commands in the brain that occur during sleep, but are not carried out.

Front 59

Hypnosis

Back 59

An altered state of consciousness characterized by narrowed attention and increased suggestibility.

Front 60

Hypnotic susceptibility

Back 60

One's capacity for becoming hypnotized.

Front 61

Basic suggestion effect

Back 61

The tendency of hypnotized persons to carry out suggested actions as if they were involuntary.

Front 62

Meditation

Back 62

A mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness.

Front 63

Concentrative meditation

Back 63

Mental exercise based on widening attention to become aware of everything experienced at any given moment.

Front 64

Relaxation response

Back 64

The pattern of internal bodily changes that occurs at times of relaxation.

Front 65

Sensory deprivation

Back 65

Any major reduction in the amount or variety of sensory stimulation.

Front 66

REST

Back 66

Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy.

Front 67

Psychoactive drug

Back 67

A substance capable of altering attention, memory, judgment, time sense, self-control, mood, or perception.

Front 68

Stimulant

Back 68

A substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system.

Front 69

Depressant

Back 69

A substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system.

Front 70

Dream processes

Back 70

Mental filters that hide the true meanings of dreams.

Front 71

Condensation

Back 71

Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image.

Front 72

Symbolization

Back 72

The non-literal expression of dream content.

Front 73

Secondary elaboration

Back 73

Making a dream more logical and complete while remembering it.

Front 74

Learning

Back 74

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience.

Front 75

Reinforcement

Back 75

Any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur.

Front 76

Antecedents

Back 76

Events that precede a response.

Front 77

Consequences

Back 77

Events that follow a response.

Front 78

Reflex

Back 78

An innate, automatic response to a stimulus; for example, an eye-blink.

Front 79

Classical conditioning

Back 79

A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

Front 80

Operant conditioning

Back 80

Learning based on the consequences of responding.

Front 81

Acquisition

Back 81

The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.

Front 82

Respondent reinforcement

Back 82

Reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a conditioned stimulus.

Front 83

Higher order conditioning

Back 83

Classical conditioning in which a condioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning; that is, a CS is used as if it were a US.

Front 84

Informational view

Back 84

Perspective that explains learning in terms of information imparted by events in the environment.

Front 85

Expectancy

Back 85

An anticipation concerning future events or relationships.

Front 86

Extinction

Back 86

The weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement.

Front 87

Spontaneous recovery

Back 87

The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.

Front 88

Stimulus generalization

Back 88

The tendancy to respond to stimuli similar to, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus.

Front 89

Stimulus discrimination

Back 89

The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

Front 90

Conditioned emotional response

Back 90

An emotional response that has been linked to a previously non-emotional stimulus by classical conditioning.

Front 91

Vicarious classical conditioning

Back 91

Classical conditioning brought about by observing another person react to a particular stimulus.

Front 92

Operant conditioning

Back 92

Learning based on the consequences of responding.

Front 93

Law of effect

Back 93

Responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are not.

Front 94

Operant reinforcer

Back 94

Any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows.

Front 95

Response chaining

Back 95

The assembly of separate responses into a series of actions that lead to reinforcement.

Front 96

Superstitious behavior

Back 96

A behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary.

Front 97

Shaping

Back 97

Gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern.

Front 98

Operant extinction

Back 98

The weakening or disappearance of a non-reinforced operant response.

Front 99

Positive reinforcement

Back 99

Occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event

Front 100

Negative reinfocement

Back 100

Occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.

Front 101

Punishment

Back 101

Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occuring again.

Front 102

Response cost

Back 102

Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

Front 103

Primary reinforcers

Back 103

Non-learned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs.

Front 104

Secondary reinforcer

Back 104

A learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer.

Front 105

Token reinforcer

Back 105

A tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like.

Front 106

Social reinforcers

Back 106

Reinforcers, such as attention and approval, provided by other people.

Front 107

Feedback

Back 107

Information returned to a person about the effects a response has had; also known as knoledge of results.

Front 108

Knowledge of results (KR)

Back 108

Informational feedback.

Front 109

Schedule of reinforcement

Back 109

A rule or plan for determining which responses will be reinforced.

Front 110

Partial reinforcement

Back 110

A pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced.

Front 111

Partial reinforcement effect.

Back 111

Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Front 112

Fixed ratio schedule

Back 112

A set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given for every four correct responses.

Front 113

Variable ration schedule

Back 113

A varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given after three to seven correct responses; the actual number changes randomly.

Front 114

Fixed interval schedule

Back 114

A reinfocer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

Front 115

Variable interval schedule

Back 115

A reinfocer is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

Front 116

Stimulus control

Back 116

Stimuli present when an operant response is acquired tend to control when and where the response is made.

Front 117

Operant stimulus generalization

Back 117

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement.

Front 118

Operant stimulus discrimination

Back 118

The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with non-reward are present.

Front 119

Discriminative stimuli

Back 119

Stimuli that precede rewarded and non-rewared responses in operant conditioning.

Front 120

Punishment

Back 120

The process of suppressing a response

Front 121

Punisher

Back 121

Any event that decreses the probability or frequency of responses it follows.

Front 122

Escape learning

Back 122

Learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus.

Front 123

Avoidance learning

Back 123

Learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort.

Front 124

Cognitive learning

Back 124

Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, underastanding, and anticipation.

Front 125

Cognitive map

Back 125

Internal images or other mental representation of an area (maze, city, campus, and so forth) that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal.

Front 126

Latent learning

Back 126

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided.

Front 127

Rote learning

Back 127

Learning that takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules.

Front 128

Discovery learning

Back 128

Learning based on insight and understanding.

Front 129

Observational learning

Back 129

Learning achieved by watching and imitating the actiaons of another noting the consequences of those actions.

Front 130

Model

Back 130

A perosn who serves as an example in observational learning.

Front 131

Self-recording

Back 131

Self-mangement based on keeping records of response frequencies.

Front 132

Behavioral contract

Back 132

A formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply.