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51 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Anxiety
Hint: Deffenbacher (2004) |
An unpleasant state where we feel something bad is going to happen. Has a negative effect on EWT Deffenbacher (2004) - meta-analysis on effects of heightened anxiety - found high levels of stress impacted the accuracy of EWT |
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Capacity
Hint: Miller (1956)
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Measure of how much can be held in memory STM - Miller (1956) 7+/-2 - chunking - also found people could recall 5 words as well as 5 letters - by chunking we can remember more LTM - potentially unlimited |
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STM in Multi-Store Model
Hint: 'Fragile state' |
'Fragile state' - will disappear w/o rehearsal and if new information displaces original information Has limited capacity - must be rehearsed to move to LTM (maintenance rehearsal / elaborative rehearsal) |
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Duration
Hint: Peterson and Peterson (1956) |
Measure of how long a memory lasts before its no longer available STM - limited - Peterson and Peterson (1959) found under 20 seconds LTM - potentially unlimited - Bahrick (1975) found the more meaningful the information was, the longer it would be remembered - the yearbook study - 70% accuracy 48 years on |
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LTM in Multi-Store Model
Hint: Craik and Lockhart criticism changed, rehearsal |
The more something is rehearsed the longer lasting it will be Craik and Lockheart criticized maintenance rehearsal and led it to be changed to 'elaborative rehearsal' |
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Encoding
Hint: Baddeley (1966a and 1966b) list experiment |
The way information is changed so that it can be stored into memory. STM - mainly acoustic LTM - mainly semantic Baddeley (1966a and 1966b) gave ptcpts lists of words that were acoustically similar and dissimilar and semantically sim. and dissim. - found ptcpts recalled semantic sim. in LTM and acoustically in STM - can adapt to either method |
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Chunking
Hint: Simon (1974) |
Grouping sets of digits and numbers together into more meaningful units (chunks) - memory techniques Simon (1974) found that the size of the chunk matters - people have a larger memory for larger chunks than smaller chunks |
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Long-term memory |
The memory for events that have happened in the past Has potentially unlimited duration and capacity |
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Short-term memory |
The memory for immediate events Lasts for a very short amount of time unless they're rehearsed Sometimes referred to as 'working memory' |
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Digit-span technique
Hint: Retaining information |
Joseph Jacobs (1887) - found the average span of digits was 9.3 but 7.3 letters A way of measuring the capacity of STM Ptcps have to repeat back strings of digits in order of presentation. The number of digits in the string is gradually increased until the ptcpt can no longer recall the sequence correctly.
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Evidence for separate memory stores in the Multi-Store Model
Hint: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966), PET, HM, 'gateway' |
Serial position effect - Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) found the 'primary' and 'recency' effect PET scans showing activity in different areas of the brain during various tasks - prefrontal cortex active during STM (Beardsley, 1997) - hippocampus active for LTM (Squire, 1992) Case studies - HM (Scoville and Milner, 1957) - hippocampus was removed and resulted in him being unable to form LTM - suggested hippocampus functioned as a 'gateway' for new memories to pass through before entering permanent storage. |
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Serial position effect
Hint: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) |
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Found 'primary' and 'recency' effect Primary effect - first words are rehearsed and transferred to LTM Recency effect - the words are already in the STM Provides distinction between the two stores |
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Strengths of the Multi-Store Model |
Strong evidence of there being 3 different stores - suggests basis is sound Provides an account of both structure and process MSM has clear predictions about memory - allow psychologists to easily test it |
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Limitations of the Multi-Store Model |
Oversimplifies memory structure and process Suggests STM and LTM are unitary stores when they're probably non-unitary Recent studies suggest that memories are created by the processing rather than just rehearsal (eg. maintenance to elaborative)
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What are the suggested four long-term stores?
Hint: Limitation of unitary store MSM |
Semantic memory - memory for knowledge ABOUT the word Episodic memory - memory for what you did YESTERDAY or a film you saw LAST WEEK (time) Procedural memory - memory for instructions Perceptual-representation system (PRS) - relates to words that have been seen before |
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What are the three types of processing?
Hint: Craik and Tulving, (1975), elaboration |
Shallow processing Phonemic processing Semantic processing |
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What are validity issues with the Multi-Store Model? |
Memory research usually relates only to semantic - not relevant to all aspects of memory Usually involve psychology students - young so they have better memories, students are smarter - may have participant reactivity (try and guess) Usually lab experiments - demand characteristics and experimenter bias - can also be useful in controlling extraneous variables |
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What is the working memory model? |
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Refers to the bit of memory that you use when you're working on a complex task has Thought STM had multiple stores rather than just one - dual task method |
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Dual-task method? - (Evidence for WMM - central executive) |
Where participants are asked to carry out a primary task whilst also doing a secondary task Performance is compared to performance on just doing one task Study by Hitch and Baddeley (1976) confirmed this - also confirmed by Bunge (2000) who done fMRI scans to identify areas of brain activity during dual tasks (more) than single tasks (less) |
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What are the components of working memory and what do they do? |
Central executive - directs attention to particular tasks and allocates the slave systems but can't do too much at once Phonological loop - deals with auditory information - Baddeley (1986) found phonological store (holds the words you hear) and articulatory process (loops the words) Visuo-spacial sketchpad - used for planning a spatial task - Logie (1995) split it into visual cache and inner scribe. Episodic buffer - general store for all information |
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Word-length effect (Evidence for WMM - phonological loop) |
People cope better with short words than long words in STM - phonological loop only holds information for 2 seconds (Baddeley, 1975a) |
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Strengths of the working memory model |
Explains many psychological observations (word-length effect) Considerable amount of supporting evidence - fMRI scans showing different areas of the brain Allows scientists to distinguish different types of memory (deeper understanding - refinement) Emphasises process more than structure Moves from describing STM as a unitary store to one with a number of components. |
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Limitations of the working memory model |
Description of central executive is too vague - there's probably several stores rather than the one Fails to explain everything - oversimplified to an extent Some key evidence comes from case studies - can't observe the individual before brain damage, may have always had a bad memory - the trauma may have changed their behaviour alone. |
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Sensory memory |
Information at the senses Attention must be paid in order to encode into STM because of short capacity First step of MSM |
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What is EWT? |
Encodes information - may be distorted because crimes are quick Retains information - may alter memories over time Retrieves information - method of retrieval may alter information (i.e. questioning method) |
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Loftus and Palmer (1974) Experiment 1 Hint: misleading information, APFCE |
Experiment 1 Aim - see the effect of misleading information on EWT Procedure - showed students videos of car crashes then gave questionnaire w/ critical question asking 'how fast cars went when they hit?' but changed 'hit' to other verbs Findings - group with 'smashed' predicted a higher speed than 'contacted' Conclusions - shows the form of questioning can significantly affect eyewitness recall Experiment 2 Procedure - 3 groups shown car crash video, 2 groups given 'smashed' and 'hit', 3rd given none. Asked to return week later and answer critical question asking if there was broken glass (there wasn't) Findings - 'smashed' more likely to think there was glass Conclusions - suggests misleading information changes the way info is stored. |
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Criticisms of Loftus and Palmer (1974) |
Validity Lab experiments don't reflect real life - had it been a real-life car accident the ptcpts emotional arousal would've been higher Foster (1994) found if ptcpts thought their testimony would be heard in court, the id of a robber was more accurate |
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What is the weapon-focus effect?
Hint: Johnson and Scott (1976) |
People focus more on the weapon than the peripheral details (identification) Loftus - two men - one bloody and holding a paperknife, the other with grease on his hands w/ a pen - 49% accuracy in identifying 1st man, 33% in the second man - suggests the weapon can distract attention from the person holding it. |
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What is the explanation for the apparent contradiction in regards to anxiety both enhancing and decreasing eyewitness recall? |
Yerkes-Dodson law (Deffenbacher) States optimal performance can only be reached if emotional arousal isn't too high or too low (curvilinear relationship) |
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What is a real-life application of the accuracy of EWT in states of immense anxiety?
Hint: RMS Titanic |
Riniolo (2003) Investigated eyewitness accounts from Titanic sinking - wildly accepted before wreckage was discovered that it sunk intact despite eyewitness testimonies of it snapping in two - accuracy of survivors testimonies support the claim that central details are often accurate even under traumatic conditions |
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What effect does age have on EWT?
Hint: Adults vs children, |
Parker and Carranza (1989) found children identified more individuals in a mock crime than adults but a lower rate of accuracy. Yarmey (1993) - asked random people to describe a woman they'd spoke to 2 minutes before - young adults and middle-aged adults were more confident in their recall that older adults, no significance in accuracy Memon (2003) - the longer the delay of identification, the more older people would forget
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What is own-age bias?
Hint: Biggest criticism of age in EWT, differential experience hypothesis |
Suggests ptcpts have better memory for people of their own age group Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) - had to rate 24 pictures of people for attractiveness, given same photos again along with 24 others and asked them if they recognised any - all age groups were more accurate in identifying photos from their own age group Brigham and Malpass (1985) - differential experience hypothesis suggests the more contact we have with an age/race group, the more familiar we find them and the more expert we are at processing |
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What's the Cognitive Interview?
Hint: Four steps |
Fisher and Gieselman (1992) 1. Report everything 2. Mental reinstatement of original context 3. Changing the order 4. Changing the perspective |
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Strengths of the Cognitive Interview
Hint: Some better than others |
Meta-analysis found increase of 34% accuracy with the CI than standard interviews. Milne and Bull (2002) - recall was no different with the use of all 4 elements, with just the first 2 though the recall was significantly higher Stein and Memon (2006) - CI better than usual torture/interrogation of suspects in Brazil - increased amount of correct information |
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Limitations of the Cognitive Interview
Hint: Police time, Thames Valley approach, quantity and quality |
Collection of techniques - difficult with establishing effectiveness of CI overall More time consuming than SI - deliberate strategies are preferred to limit the amount of eyewitness recall to all that's necessary Places greater demands on the interviewer |
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What are some strategies for memory improvement? |
Verbal mnemonics Visual imagery mnemonics
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Give examples of visual mnemonics. |
Acronyms Acrostic - poem where the first letters form the item to be remembered Rhymes Chunking - (Baddeley's postcode research) |
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Give examples of visual imagery mnemonics.
Hint: Greeks, learning language technique |
Method of loci - associate parts of the material to be recalled with different places in the order that they are to be recalled Keyword method (Atkinson and Raugh, 1975) - associating a visual image to recall a word Spider diagrams/mind maps - gives unique distinctive visual appearance, which adds visual cues. |
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What does research show about verbal mnemonics?
Hint: Learning difficulties, revision methods |
Gruneburg (1973) - found 30% students used verbal mnemonics to revise Glidden (1983) - found verbal mnemonics were helpful in children with learning difficulties - effectiveness was no longer evident after 12 months, though. |
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What does research into visual imagery mnemonics show?
Hint: Learning Russian language |
O'Hara (2007) - training with method of loci helps with LTM with older adults Atkinson (1975) - ptcpts who used keyword method learned more words than a control group (didn't use keyword method) but didn't show long-term effects |
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Limitations of mnemonic strategies
Hint: Slavin (2005) |
Most studies take place in lab environments (artificial). Slavin (2005) - Mnemonic strategies are good at teaching foreign languages but aren't as effective in helping students to actually speak them. |
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How do mnemonics work?
Hint: Paivio (1971) |
Paivio (1971) - thought words and images were processed separately - dual coding hypothesis - double encoding in memory occurs with verbal symbols and again with image-based symbols - increases likelihood that they'll be remembered |
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What is the scientific method? |
Method used in scientific research where scientists start by observing natural phenomena and develop hypothesis, which are then tested. 1. Scientists observe things going on in the world around them 2. They develop a tentative explanation for the things they observe and produce a hypothesis 3. In order to establish whether the hypothesis is true, they design a study to test it 4. If the hypothesis is true, then conclusions can be drawn 5.If the hypothesis is wrong then create a new one. |
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What is internal validity? |
What goes on inside a study eg. if the study had (or lacked in) mundane realism To gain high internal validity extraneous variables must be controlled and ensure that you're testing what you intend to test. |
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What is external validity?
Hint: Different kinds of validity |
Affected by internal validity - you can't generalise findings of a study that was low in internal validity because the results have no real meaning. The ability to generalise the results to: Ecological validity Population validity Historical validity |
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Name the main ethical issues and how they can be resolved. |
Informed consent - offer right to withdraw and gain presumptive consent Deception - approved by ethics committee (pros and cons) and debriefing The Right to Withdraw - ptcpts should be told they can withdraw Protection from harm - avoid any risks greater than everyday life Confidentiality - Use false names etc. Privacy - Don't observe anyone without informed consent (unless it's a private place) |
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What are the different kinds of experimental designs? |
Independent groups - each participant tested in one condition w/ separate groups Repeated measures - each participant tests all the conditions Matched pairs - pairs are allocated in terms of key variables - one member in the control group, the other in the experimental group |
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What are the different types of extraneous variables? |
Participant variables - age, intelligence, motivation, experience and gender Situational variables - order effects, time of day, temperature, investigator effects (anything the investigator does to effect a participants performance), demand characteristics Participant reactivity - participants seek cues on how to behave because they want to be useful (social desirability bias) |
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How do we deal with participant effects? |
Use a single-blind design where the participant doesn't know the true aims of the study, and so doesn't actively seek cues on how to behave |
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How do we deal with situational effects? |
Use standardised procedures to ensure all participants are tested under the same conditions - standardised instructions Use a double-blind design where the experimenter and the participant don't know the true aims, only the researcher |
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Loftus and Palmer (1974) Experiment 2 Hint: Broken glass |
Experiment 2 Procedure - 3 groups shown car crash video, 2 groups given 'smashed' and 'hit', 3rd given none. Asked to return week later and answer critical question asking if there was broken glass (there wasn't) Findings - 'smashed' more likely to think there was glass Conclusions - suggests misleading information changes the way info is stored. |
