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129 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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cognition
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the intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used
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concepts
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categories of things, events, and qualities that are linked together by a common feature or features in spite of their differences
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conjunctive concepts
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concepts defined by the simultaneous presence of two or more common characteristics
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disjunctive concepts
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concepts defined by the presence of one of two common characteristics or both
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problem solving
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the cognitive process through which information is used to reach a goal that is blocked by some obstacle
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mental set
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a habitual way of approaching or perceiving a problem
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algorithms
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systematic patterns of reasoning that guarantee finding a correct solution to a problem
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heuristic reasoning
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way of thinking based on strategies that increase the probability of finding a correct solution but do not guarantee it
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representativeness heuristic
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the strategy of making judgements about the unknown on the assumption that it is similar to what we know
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creativity
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the ability to make human products and ideas (such as symphonies or solutions to social problems) that are both novel and valued by others
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convergent thinking
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thinking that is logical and conventional and that focuses on a problem
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divergent thinking
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thinking that is loosely organized, only partially directed, and unconventional
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intelligence
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the cognitive abilities of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope with the demands of daily living
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fluid intelligence
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the ability to learn or invent new strategies to deal with new problems
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crystallized intelligence
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the ability to use previously learned information and skills to solve familiar problems
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intelligence quotient (IQ)
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a numerical value of intelligence derived from the results of an intelligence test
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ratio IQ
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the intelligence quotient based on the ratio between the person's mental age and chronological age
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deviation IQ
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the intelligence quotient based on the degree of deviation from average of the person's score on an intelligence test
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normal distribution
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the symmetrical pattern of scores on a scale in which a majority of the scores are clustered near the center and a minority are at either extreme
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standardization
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administering a test in the same way to all individuals
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norms
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standards (created by the scores of a large group of individuals) used as the basis of comparison for scores on a test
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objectivity
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lack of subjectivity in a test question so that the same score is given regardless of who does the scoring
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reliability
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a test's ability to produce similar scores if the test is administered on different occasions or by different examiners
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validity
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the extent to which a test measures what it's supposed to measure
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tacit intelligence
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the practical knowledge and skills needed to deal with everyday problems that are usually not taught in school
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language
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a symbolic code used in communication
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semantic content
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the meaning in symbols, such as language
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surface structure
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the superficial spoken or written structure of a statement
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deep structure
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the underlying structure of a statement that holds its meaning
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generative
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the ability to create an infinite set of utterances using a finite set of elements and rules
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phonemes
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the smallest units of sound in a language
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morphemes
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the smallest units of meaning in a language
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syntax
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the grammatical rules of a language
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linguistic relativity hypothesis
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the idea that the structure of a language may influence the way individuals think
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neonatal period
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the first two weeks of life following birth
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rooting reflex
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an automatic response in which an infant turns its head toward stimulation on the cheek
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sensorimotor stage
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in Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from birth to 2 years
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object permanence
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the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are not in view
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telegraphic speech
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the abbreviated speech of 2-year-olds
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development
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the more-or-less predictable changes in behavior associated with increasing age
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developmental psychology
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the field of psychology that focuses on development across the life span
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maturation
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systematic physical growth of the body, including the nervous system
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imprinting
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a form of early learning that occurs in some animals during a critical period
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critical period
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a biologically determined period in the life of some animals during which certain forms of learning can take place most easily
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early experiences
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experiences occurring very early in development, believed by some to have lasting effects
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stage
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one of several time periods in development that is qualitatively distinct from the periods that come before and after
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early experiences
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experiences occurring very early in development, believed by some to have lasting effects
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attachments
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the psychological bonds between infants and caregivers
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separation anxiety
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the distressed experienced by infants when they are separated from their caregivers
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preoperational stage
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in Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from ages 2 to 7
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egocentric
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the self-oriented quality in the thinking of preoperational children
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animism
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the egocentric belief of preoperational children that inanimate objects are alive, as children are
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transductive reasoning
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errors in understanding cause-and-effect relationships that are commonly made by preoperational children
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solitary play
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playing alone
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parallel play
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playing near but not with another child
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cooperative play
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play that involves cooperation between two or more children
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concrete operational stage
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in Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from ages 7 to 11
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reversibility
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the concept understood by concrete operational children that logical propositions can be reversed (if 2 + 3 = 5, then 5 - 3 = 2)
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conservation
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the concept understood by concrete operational children that quality (number, mass, etc.) does not change just because shape or other superficial features have changed
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decenter
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to think about more than one characteristic of a thing at a time; a capacity of concrete operational children
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adolescence
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the period from the onset of puberty until the beginning of adulthood
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puberty
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the point in development at which the individual is first physically capable of sexual reproduction
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primary sex characteristics
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ovulation and menstruation in females and production of sperm in males
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menarche
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the first menstrual period
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secondary sex characteristics
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development of the breasts and hips in females; growth of the testes, broadening of shoulders, lowered voice, and growth of the penis and facial hair in males; and growth of pubic hair in both sexes
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adolescent growth spurt
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the rapid increase in weight and height that occurs around the onset of puberty
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formal operational stage
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period characterized by an ability to use abstract concepts
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adolescent egocentrism
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the quality of thinking that leads some adolescents to believe that they are the focus of attention in social situations, to believe that their problems are unique, to be unusually hypocritical, and to be "pseudostupid"
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climacteric
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the period between about ages 45 and 60 in which there is a loss of capacity to sexually reproduce in women and a decline in the reproduction capacity of men
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menopause
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the cessation of menstruation and the capacity to reproduce in women
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motivation
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the internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts, feelings, and actions
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emotion
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positive or negative feelings generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by psychological arousal and related behavior
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primary motives
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human motives for things that are necessary for survival, such as food, water, and warmth
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homeostatic mechanisms
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internal body mechanisms that sense biological imbalances and stimulate actions to restore the proper balance
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hypothalamus
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the part of the forebrain involved with motives, emotions, and the functions of the automatic nervous system
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lateral hypothalamus
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a portion of the hypothalamus involved in feeling hungry and starting to eat (the feeding center)
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ventromedial hypothalamus
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a part of the hypothalamus involved in inhibiting eating when sufficient food has been consumed (the satiety center)
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hyperphagia
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excessive overeating that results from the destruction of the satiety center of the hypothalamus
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paraventricular nucleus
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a part of the hypothalamus that plays a role in the motive of hunger by regulating the level of blood sugar
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metabolism
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the rate at which cells use energy
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incentives
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external cues that activate motives
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pituitary gland
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the body's master gland, located near the bottom of the brain, whose hormones help regulate the activity of the other glands in the endocrine system
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antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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a hormone produced by the pituitary that causes the kidneys to conserve water in the body by reabsorbing it from the urine
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angiotensin
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a substance in the blood that signals the hypothalamus that the body needs water
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psychological motives
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motives related to the individual's happiness and well-being, but not to survival
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novel stimulation
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new or changed experiences
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optimal level of arousal
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the apparent human need for a comfortable level of stimulation, achieved by acting in ways that increase or decrease it
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reticular formation
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sets of neurons in the medulla and pons from which neurons project down the spinal cord to play a role in maintaining muscle tone and cardiac reflexes and upward throughout the cerebral cortex where they influence wakefulness, arousal level, and attention
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Yerkes-Dodson law
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a law stating that effective performance is more likely if the level of arousal is suitable for the activity
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motive for affiliation
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the need to be with other people and to have personal relationships
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achievement motivation
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the psychological need in humans for success
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opponent-process theory of motivation
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Solomon's theory of the learning of new motives based on changes over time in contrasting feelings
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intrinsic motivation
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human motives stimulated by the inherent nature of the activity or its natural consequences
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extrinsic motivation
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human motives activated by external rewards
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Maslow's hierarchy of motives
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the concept that more basic needs must be met before higher-level motives become active
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self-actualization
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according to Maslow, the seldomly reached full result of the inner-directed drive of humans to grow, improve, and use their potential to the fullest
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James-Lange theory of emotion
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the theory that conscious emotional experiences are caused by feedback to the cerebral cortex from physiological reactions and behaviors
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
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the theory that conscious emotional experiences and physiological reactions and behavior are relatively independent events
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cognitive theory of emotion
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the theory that the cognitive interpretation of events in the outside world and stimuli from our own bodies is the key factor in emotions
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Freud's instinct theory
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the theory that aggression is caused by an inborn aggressive instinct
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catharsis
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the process of releasing instinctual energy
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frustration-aggression theory
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the theory that aggression is a natural reaction to the frustration of important motives
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social psychology
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the branch of psychology that studies individuals as they interact with others
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deindividuation
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state in which people in a group can feel anonymous and unidentifiable and therefore feel less concerned with what others think of their behavior
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diffusion of responsibility
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the effect of being in a group that apparently reduces the sense of personal responsibility of each group member to act appropriately
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social facilitation
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an effect in which working in a group improves one's performance on individual projects
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social loafing
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the tendency of members of groups to work less hard when group performance is measured rather than when individual performance is measured
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groupthink
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the faulty decision making processes that may occur in groups
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polarization
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the tendency for group discussion to make beliefs and attitudes more extreme
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conformity
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yielding to group pressure even when no direct request to comply has been made
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social roles
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culturally determined guidelines that tell people what behavior is expected of them
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social norms
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guidelines provided by every culture for judging acceptable and unacceptable behavior
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obedience
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doing what one is told to do by people in authority
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attitudes
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evaluations that predispose one to act and feel in certain ways
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persuasion
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the process of changing another persons attitudes through arguments and other related means
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sleeper effects
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according to Hovland, the potential for low credibility speakers to influence opinion after a period of time
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cognitive dissonance
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the discomfort that results for inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors
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prejudice
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a harmful attitude based on inaccurate generalizations about a group of people
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stereotype
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an inaccurate generalization on which a prejudice is based
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attribution theory
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the theory that people tend to look for explanations for their own behaviors and that of others
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personal perception
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the process of forming impressions of others
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fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to underestimate the impact of situations on others while overestimating the impact on oneself
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attribution
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the process of trying to explain why things happen-that is attribute them to some cause
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situational attribution
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an explanation for behavior that is based on an external cause
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dispositional attribution
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an explanation for behavior that is based on a personal characteristic of the individual
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primacy effect
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the tendency for first impressions to heavily influence opinions about other people
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passionate love
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the mixture of romantic, sexual, and other feelings of love...that Jabari has for me!
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companionate love
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the blend of friendship, intimacy, commitment, and security that generally develops after the passionate love...that Jabari has for me!
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equity theory
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the theory that partners will be comfortable in their relationship only when the ratio between their perceived contributions and benefits is equal
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