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174 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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psychology
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science of behavior and mental processes
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science
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approach to knowledge based on systematic observations
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behavior
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directly observable and measurable actions
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mental processes
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private psychological activities that include thinking, perceiving, and feeling
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theories
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tentative explanations of facts and relationships in sciences
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structuralism
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19th-century school of psychology that sought to determine the structure of the mind through controlled introspection
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introspection
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the process of looking inward at one's own consciousness
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Gestalt psychology
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school of thought based on the belief that human consciousness cannot be broken down into its elements
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Gestalt
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organized or unified whole
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phi phenomenon
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perception of apparent movement between two stationary stimuli
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functionalism
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19th-century school of psychology that emphasized the useful functions of consciousness
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cognition
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mental processes of perceiving, believing, thinking, remembering, knowing, deciding, and so on
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cognitive psychology
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viewpoint in psychology that emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes, such as perception, memory, and thinking
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behaviorism
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school of psychology that emphasizes the process of learning and the measurement of overt behavior
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social learning theory
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viewpoint that the most important aspects of our behavior are learned from other persons in society-family, friends, and culture
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unconscious mind
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all mental activity of which we are unaware
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psychoanalysis
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technique of helping persons with emotional problems based on Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious mind
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humanistic psychology
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psychological view that human beings process an innate tendency to improve and determine their lives by the decisions they make
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psychometrics
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perspective in psychology founded by Binet that focuses on the measurement of mental functions
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neuroscience perspective
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viewpoint in psychology that focuses on the nervous system in explaining behavior and mental processes
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sociocultural perspective
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theory of psychology that states it is necessary to understand a person's culture and other social influences to fully understand him/her
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social anthropology
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field of social science that studies the ways in which cultures are both similar and different from one another and how cultures influence human behavior
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cultural relativity
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perspective that promotes thinking of different cultures in relative terms rather than judgmental terms
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applied psychologists
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psychologists who use knowledge of psychology to solve and to prevent human problems
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scientific method
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method of studying nature based on systematic observation and rules of evidence
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empirical evidence
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evidence based on observations of publicity observable phenomena, such as behavior, that can be confirmed by other observers
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operational definition
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definition used in science that is explicitly based on the procedures, or operations, used to measure a scientific phenomenon, including behavior
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theories
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tentative explanations of facts and relationships in sciences
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hypothesis
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prediction based on a theory that is tested in a study
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sample
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group of human or nonhuman research participants studied to learn about an entire population of human beings or animals
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sociocultural perspective
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theory of psychology that states it is necessary to understand a person's culture and other social influences to fully understand him/her
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social anthropology
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field of social science that studies the ways in which cultures are both similar and different from one another and how cultures influence human behavior
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cultural relativity
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perspective that promotes thinking of different cultures in relative terms rather than judgmental terms
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applied psychologists
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psychologists who use knowledge of psychology to solve and to prevent human problems
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scientific method
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method of studying nature based on systematic observation and rules of evidence
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empirical evidence
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evidence based on observations of publicity observable phenomena, such as behavior, that can be confirmed by other observers
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operational definition
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definition used in science that is explicitly based on the procedures, or operations, used to measure a scientific phenomenon, including behavior
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theories
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tentative explanations of facts and relationships in sciences
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hypothesis
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prediction based on a theory that is tested in a study
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sample
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group of human or nonhuman research participants studied to learn about an entire population of human beings or animals
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replication
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repeating studies based on the scientific principle that the results of studies should be doubted until the same results have been found in similar studies by other researchers
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descriptive studies
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methods of observation used to describe predictable behavior and mental processes
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survey method
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research method that uses interviews and questionnaires with individuals
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naturalistic observation
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research method based on recording behavior as it occurs in natural life settings
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clinical method
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method of studying people while they are receiving psychological help from a mental health professional
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correlation method
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research method that measures the strength of the relation between variables
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variable
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a factor that can be assigned a numerical value
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quantitative measures
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units of measure expressed in numerical terms
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correlation coefficient
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the numerical expression of the strength and the direction of a relationship between two variables
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formal experiment
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research method that allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable to study its effect on the dependent variable
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independent variable
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variable whose quantitative value is independently controlled by the researcher
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dependent variable
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variable whose quantitative value is expected to depend on the effects of the independent variable
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experimental group
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group in an experiment that receives some value of the independent variable
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control group
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group in simple experiments that is not exposed to any level of the independent variable and is used for comparisons with the treatment group
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random assignment
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requirement that participants be assigned randomly to experimental conditions in formal experiments rather than in a systematic way
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experimental control
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requirement that all explanations for differences in the dependent variable are controlled in formal experiments, except for differences in conditions of the independent variable
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placebo effect
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changes in behavior produced by a condition in a formal experiment thought to be inert or inactive, such as an inactive pill
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blind experiment
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formal experiment in which the researcher who measures the dependent variable does not know which participants are in the experimental group or the control group. In double-blind experiments, the participants also do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group
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experimenter bias
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subtle but potentially powerful unintentional influences on the dependent variable caused by experimenters' interacting differently with participants in the experimental and the control group
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descriptive statistics
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statistics such as the mean and standard deviation that summarize the numerical results of studies
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mean
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the average of a set of scores
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median
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the middle of a set of scores that are ordered from smallest to largest where 50% have higher and 50% have lower scores
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normal distribution
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symmetrical pattern of scores on a scale in which a majority of the scores are clustered near the center and a minority are at the extremes
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mode
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the most common score in a set of scores
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standard deviation
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mathematical measure of how spread out scores are from the mean score
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statistical significance
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decisions based on statistical calculations that a finding was unlikely to have occurred by chance
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brain
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the complex mass of neural cells and related cells encased in the skull
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spinal cord
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the nerve fibers in the spinal column
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neuron
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individual nerve cell
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cell body
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the central part of the neuron that includes the nucleus
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dendrites
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extensions of the cell body that usually serve as receiving areas for messages from other neurons
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axons
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neuron branches that transmit messages to other neurons
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nerve
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bundle of long neurons outside the brain and spinal cord
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ions
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electrically charged particles
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cell membrane
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the covering or a neuron or another cell
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semipermeable
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surface that allows some, but not all, particles to pass through
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polarized
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resting state of a neuron, when more negative ions are inside and more positive ions are outside the cell membrane
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depolarized
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process during which positively charged ions flow into the axon, making it less negatively charged inside
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action potential
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brief electrical signal that travels the length of the axon
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all-or-none principle
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law that states that once a neural action potential is produced, its magnitude is always the same
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myelin sheath
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insulating fatty covering wrapped around the axon that speeds the transmission of neural messages
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synapse
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space between the axon of one neuron and another neuron
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synaptic gap
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the small space between two neurons at a synapse
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neurotransmitters
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chemical substances, produced by axons, that transmit messages across the synapse
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synaptic vesicles
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tiny vessels containing stored quantities of the neurotransmitter substance held in the synaptic terminals of the axon
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synaptic terminal
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the knoblike tips of axons
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receptor sites
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sites on the neuron that receive the neurotransmitter substance
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glial cells
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cells that assist neurons by transporting nutrients, to them, producing myelin sheath, and regulating the likelihood of transmission of messages across the synaptic gap
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acetylcholine
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a neurotransmitter used by somatic neurons that contract the body's large muscles. Also plays a role in memory and is thought to help regulate dreaming
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dopamine
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a neurotransmitter substance used by neurons in the brain that control large muscle movements and by neurons in pleasure and reward systems in the brain
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serotonin
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a neurotransmitter used by systems of neurons believed to regulate sleep, dreaming, appetite, anxiety, depression, and the inhibition of violence
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norepinephrine
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neurotransmitter believed to be involved in vigilance and attention and released by sympathetic autonomic neurons and adrenal glands
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glutamate
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the most widespread excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
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neuropeptides
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large group of neurotransmitters sometimes referred to as neuromodulators, because they appear to broadly influence the action of the other transmitters
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central nervous system
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the brain and the spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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the network of nerves that branches from the brain and the spinal cord to all parts of the body
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interneuron
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neurons in the central nervous system that connect other neurons
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afferent neurons
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neurons that transmit messages from sense organs to the central nervous system
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efferent neurons
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neurons that transmit messages from the central nervous system to organs and muscles
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somatic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the sense organs to the central nervous system and from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the actions of internal body organs, such as heartbeat
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sympathetic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body to respond to psychological or physical stress
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parasympathetic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that promotes bodily maintenance and energy conservation and storage under nonstressful conditions
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ganglia
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clusters of cell bodies of neurons outside the central nervous system
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forebrain
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the parts of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex, that cover the hindbrain and midbrain and fill much of the skull
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thalamus
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the part of the forebrain that primarily routes sensory messages to appropriate parts of the brain
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hypothalamus
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the small part of the forebrain involved with motives, emotions, and the functions of the automatic nervous system
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limbic system
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a complex brain system, composed of the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex, that works with the hypothalamus in emotional arousal
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amygdala
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a part of the limbic system that plays a role in emotion
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hippocampus
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the part of the limbic system that plays a role in memory and the processing of emotion
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cingulate cortex
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a part of the limbic system, living in the cerebral cortex, that processes cognitive information in emotion
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cerebral cortex
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the largest structure in the forebrain, controlling conscious experience and intelligence and being involved with the somatic nervous system
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frontal lobes
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the part of the cerebral cortex in the front of the skull involved in planning, organization, thinking, decision making, memory, voluntary motor movements, and speech
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Broca's area
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area of the frontal lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere that plays a role in speaking language
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expressive aphasia
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impairment of the ability to generate spoken language but not to comprehend language
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parietal lobes
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the part of the cerebral cortex that is behind the frontal lobes at the top of the skull and that continues the somatosensory area
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somatosensory area
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the strip of parietal cortex running parallel to the motor area of the frontal lobes that plays a role in body senses
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temporal lobes
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the part of the cerebral cortex that extends back from the area of the temples beneath the frontal and parietal lobes and that contains areas involved in the sense of hearing and understanding language
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Wernicke's area
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the language area of the cortex that plays an essential role in understanding spoken language
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Wernicke's aphasia
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form of aphasia in which persons can speak fluently (but nonsensically) and cannot make sense out of language spoken to them by others
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occipital lobes
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the part of the cerebral cortex, located at the base of the back of the head, that plays an essential role in the processing of sensory information from the eyes
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association areas
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areas within each lobe of the cerebral cortex believed to play general rather than specific roles
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
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recording of the electrical activity of the brain obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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imaging technique that reveals the function of the brain
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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imaging technique using magnetic resonance to obtain detailed views of the brain structure and function
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functional MRI
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type of MRI that measures the activity of parts of the brain by measuring the use of oxygen by groups of neurons
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cerebral hemispheres
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the two main parts of the cerebral cortex, divided into left and right hemispheres
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corpus callosum
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the major neural structure connecting the left and the right cerebral hemispheres
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plasticity
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ability of parts of the brain, particularly the cerebral cortex, to acquire new functions that partly or completely replace the functions of a damaged part of the brain
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neural pruning
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normal process of selective loss of gray matter in the brain over time, which is thought to improve the efficiency of neural systems by eliminating unnecessary cells
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neurogenesis
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hypothesized growth of new neurons in adult mammals
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monozygotic twins
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twins formed from a single ovum; they are identical in appearance because they have the same genetic structure
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dizygotic twins
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twins formed from the fertilization of two ova by two sperm
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cortisol
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stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands
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monozygotic twins
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twins formed from a single ovum; they are identical in appearance because they have the same genetic structure
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dizygotic twins
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twins formed from the fertilization of two ova by two sperm
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culture
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patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values shared by a group of people
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ethnic group
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group of persons who are descendants of a common group of ancestors
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ethnic identity
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each person's sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group
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gene-environment interaction
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the phenomenon in which genes influence how environments influence us and environments influence how genes influence us
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gene expression
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the physical chain effects through which genes determine which proteins are synthesized to create the structure of neurons, glands, and other bodily structures
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sex
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the distinction between males and females based on biological characteristics
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gender
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the psychological experience of being male or female
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gender identity
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one's view of oneself as male or female
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gender role
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the typical behaviors consistent with being male or female within a given culture
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androgynous
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having both typically female and male psychological characteristics
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evolutionary psychology
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the perspective in psychology that the psychological characteristics of human and nonhuman animals arose through natural selection
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social-role theory of gender differences
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the theory that the opportunities and restrictions inherent in women's and men's different social roles create psychological gender differences
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heterosexuality
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romantic and sexual attraction to those of the different sex
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homosexuality
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romantic and sexual attraction to those of the same sex, as distinguished from heterosexuality
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