Psychology

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Learning

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a lasting change in behavior or mental

processes that results from experience

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habituation

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learning not to respond to the repeated

presentation of a stimulus

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mere exposure effect

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a learned preference for stimuli to which

we have been previously exposed

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behavioral learning

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forms of learning, such as classical

conditioning and operant conditioning,

that can be described in terms of stimuli

and responses

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classical conditioning

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a form of behavioral learning in which a

previously neutral stimuli acquires the

power to elicit the same innate reflex

produced by another stimulus

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Neutral stimulus

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any stimulus that produces no conditioned

response prior to learning. When it is

brought into a conditioning experiment,

the researcher will call it a conditioned

stimulus (CS). The assumption is that

some conditioning occurs after even

one pairing of the CS and UCS

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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in classical conditioning, UCS is the stimulus

that elects an unconditioned response.

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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in classical conditioning, the response

elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

without prior learning.

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acquisition

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the initial learning stage in classical

conditioning, durning which the

conditioned response comes to be

elated by the conditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, a previously

neutral stimulus that comes into elicit

the conditioned response. Customarily,

in a conditioning experiment, the

neutral stimulus is called a conditioned

stimulus when it is first paired with an

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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conditioned response (CR)

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in classical conditioning, a response elicited

by a previously neutral stimulus that has

become associated with the unconditioned

stimulus

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extinction (in classical conditioning)

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the weakening of a conditioned response

in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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the unexpected reappearance of an

extinguished conditioned response after

a time delay

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stimulus generalization

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the extension of a learned response to

stimuli that are similar to the conditioned

stimulus

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stimulus discrimination

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learning to respond to a particular stimulus

but not to stimuli that are similar

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operant conditioning

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a form of behavioral learning in which the

probability of a response is changed by its

consequences - that is, by the stimuli that

follow the response

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law of effect

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the idea that responses that produced

desirable results would be learned or

"stamped" into the organism

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Reinforcer

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a condition (involving either the presentation

or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after

a response and strengthens that response.

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positive reinforcement

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a stimulus presented after a response

and increasing the probability of that

response happening again.

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negative reinforcement

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the removal of an unpleasant or aversive

stimulus, contingent on a particular

behavior. Contrast with punishment.

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operant chamber

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a boxlike apparatus that can be programmed

to deliver reinforcers and punishers

contingent on an animals behavior.

The operant chamber is often called a

"skinner box"

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Reinforcement contigencies

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Relationships between a response and

the changes in stimulation that follow

the response

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continuous reinforcement

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a type of reinforcement schedule by

which all correct responses are reinforce

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shaping

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an operant learning technique in which

a new behavior is produced by reinforcing

responses that are similar to the desired

response

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intermittent reinforcement

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a type of reinforcement schedule by which

some, but not all, correct responses are

reinforced; also called partial reinforcement

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extinction (in operant conditioning)

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a process by which a response that has

been learned is weakened by the absence

or removal of reinforcement

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schedule of reinforcement

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a program specifying the frequency and

timing of reinforcements

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ratio schedule

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a program by which reinforcement

depends on the number of correct

responses

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interval schedule

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a program by which reinforcement

depends on the time interval elapsed

since the last reinforcement

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fixed ratio (FR) schedule

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a program by which reinforcement is

contingent on a certain, unvarying number

of responses

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variable ratio (VR) schedule

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a reinforcement program by which the

number of responses required for a

reinforcement varies from trial to trial

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fixed interval (FI) schedule

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a program by which the reinforcement is

contingent upon a certain, fixed time period

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variable interval (VI) schedule

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a program by which the time period

between reinforcement varies from trial

to trial.

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primary reinforcer

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a reinforcer, such a food or sex, that has

an innate basis because of its biological

value to an organism.

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conditioned reinforcer or secondary reinforcer

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a stimulus, such as money or tokens,

that acquires its reinforcing power by a

learned association with primary reinforcers

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instinctive drift

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the tendency of an organism's innate

(instinctive) responses to interfere with

learned behavior

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token economy

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a therapeutic method, based on operant

conditioning, by which individual are

rewarded with tokens, which act as secondary

reinforcers. the tokens can be redeemed for

a variety of rewards and privileges.

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Premack principle

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the concept, developed by David Premack,

that a more-preferred activity can be used to

reinforce a less-preferred activity

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punishment

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an aversive consequence which, occurring

after response, diminshes the strength of

the response

(contrast with negative reinforcement)

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positive punishment

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the application of an aversive stimulus after a

response

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negative punishment

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the removal of an attractive stimulus

after a response

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insight learning

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a form of cognitive learning originally

described by the Gestalt psychologist,

in which problem solving occurs by

means of a sudden reorganization of

perceptions

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cognitive map

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in Tolman's work, a cognitive map was a

mental representation of a maze or other

physical space. Psychologist often use the

term cognitive map more broadly to include

an understanding of connections among

concepts. Thus a cognitive map can present

either a physical or a metal "space"

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observational learning

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a form of cognitive learning in which a

new responses are acquired after watching

others' behavior and the consequences of

their behavior

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long-term potentiation

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a biological process involving physical

changes that strengthen the synapses

in groups of nerve cells that is believed to

be the neural basis of learning