Psychology

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germinal stage

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the first prenatal stage of development, which begins at conception and lasts two weeks

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zygote

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single cell that results when a sperm fertilizes an egg

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embryo

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the term for the developing organism from 2 weeks until about 8 weeks after conception

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embryonic stage

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the second prenatal stage, from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception when all of the major organs form

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fetal stage

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the third prenatal stage, which begins with the formation of bone cells 8 weeks after conception and ends at birth

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neural migration

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the movement of neurons from one part of the fetal brain to their more permanent destination; occurs during months 3-5 of the fetal stage

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prenatal programming

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the process by which events in the womb alter the development of physical and psychological health

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teratogens

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substances that can cause permanent damage to the developing embryo or fetus

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fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

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a consequence of prenatal alcohol exposure that causes multiple problems, notably brain damage

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temperament

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the biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life

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personality

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the unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and motives that characterize an individual

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pruning

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the degradation of synapses and dying off of neurons that are not strengthened by experience

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sensorimotor stage

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Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (ages 0-2) when infants learn about the world by using their senses and by moving their bodies

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object permanence

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the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed

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preoperational stage

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the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 2-5) which begins with the emergence of symbolic thought

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animistic thinking

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belief that inanimate objects are alive

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egocentrism

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viewing the world from one's own perspective and not being capable of seeing things from another person's perspective

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conservation

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the ability to recognize that when some properties (shape) of an object change, other properties (volume) remain constant

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concrete operational stage

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Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, which spans ages 6-11, during which the child can perform mental operations- such as reversing- on real objects or events

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formal operational stage

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Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, from age 11 or 12 on through adulthood, when formal logic is possible.

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zone of proximal development

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the distance between what a child can learn alone and what that child can learn assisted by someone else, usually an adult

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theory of mind

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ideas and knowledge about how other people's minds work

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preconventional level

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the first level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, focusing on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards

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conventional level

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second level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, during which the person values caring, trust, and relationships as well as the social order and lawfulness

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postconventional level

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the third level Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, in which the person recognizes universal moral rules that may trump unjust or immoral local rules

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imprinting

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the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth

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attachment

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the strong emotional connection that develops early in life between infants and their caregivers

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separation anxiety

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the distress reaction shown by babies when they are separated from their primary caregiver (typically shown around 9 months of age)

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secure attachment

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attachment style characterized by infants who will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves and initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation

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social referencing

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ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person, especially a caregiver

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emotional competence

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ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to express them

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adolescence

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the transition period between childhood and adulthood

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puberty

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the period when sexual maturation begins; marks the beginning of adolescence

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emerging adulthood

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the transitional phase between adolescence and young adulthood; includes ages 18-25 years

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young adulthood

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development stage that usually happens by mid 20s when people complete the key developmental tasks of emerging adulthood

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intimacy

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the ability to fuse one's identity with another's without the fear of losing it

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individuation

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the process of a person's personality becoming whole and full

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generativity

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a term Erik Erikson used to describe the process in adulthood of creating new ideas, products, or people

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stagnation

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situation where the adult becomes more self-focused than oriented toward others and does not contribute in a productive way to society or family

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fluid intelligence

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raw mental ability, pattern recognition, abstract reasoning that can be applied to a problem one has never confronted before.

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crystallized intelligence

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the kind of knowledge that one gains from experiencing and learning education, and practice

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dementia

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a loss of mental function, in which many cognitive processes are impaired, such as the ability to remember, reason, solve problems, make decisions, and use language

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Alzheimer's disease

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a degenerative disease marked by progressive cognitive decline and characterized by a collection of symptoms including confusion, memory loss, mood swings, and eventual loss of physical function