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188 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does Social Learning Theory suggest about learning?
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We don't just learn from direct experience, we can learn though observing others
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Who believed that aggression could not be explained by traditional learning theory (where only direct experience leads to learning) ?
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Bandura and Walters (1963)
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Why doesn't SLT ignore biological factors?
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It suggests that a persons biological makeup creates a potential for aggression, and it is the expression of aggression which is learned
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Outline Bandura et al's (1961) Bobo doll study?
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Participants were male and female children ranging from 3 to 5 years old. Shown either an aggressive or non-aggressive adult model. Following seeing the model, the children were deliberately frustrated by showing them toys that they couldn't play with before being taken to a room where there were various toys, including a Bobo doll. The children in the aggressive condition acted violently towards the doll, with 1/3 imitating the verbal aggression they had seen. Children in the non-aggressive group exhibited virtually no aggression to the doll, physically or verbally
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What year was the main Bandura Bobo doll study?
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1961
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What did Bandura describe as vicarious learning?
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Where people learn the likely consequences of behaviour from watching others being rewarded or punished
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What did Bandura and Walter's find in their 1963 Bobo doll study?
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Children who saw the model being rewarded for their aggression showed the highest levels of aggression, and children who saw the model being punished showed the lowest level of aggression
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What did Bandura claim must happen for social learning to take place?
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The child must form mental representations of events in their social environment
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Why are studies into social learning theory often unethical?
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They expose children to aggressive behaviour with the knowledge that they may reproduce it on their own, which has risks of physical and psychological harm
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What did Phillip's (1986) find?
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Daily homicide rates in the US almost always increased in the weeks following a major boxing match, yet the same did not happen in the week following the Superbowl
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Why is SLT superior to traditional learning theory?
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It can explain aggressive behaviour in the absence of direct reinforcement
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What is Wolfgang and Ferracuti's (1967) 'culture of violence' theory?
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In some cultures, sub-cultures develop that sanction violence to a greater degree than the dominant culture
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Who created the 'culture of violence' theory?
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Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967)
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What did Noble (1975) report regarding Bandura's research?
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One child said 'Look mummy, there is a doll we have to hit'
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What was a criticism of Bandura's research and how did he tackle this? |
Aggression against Bobo dolls does not equate violence against people. The experiment was replicated with the model beating up a real clown. The children still behaved violently towards it |
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Who reported that one child said 'Look mummy, there is a doll we have to hit'?
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Noble (1975)
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What does Le Bon (1895) claim?
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When in a crowd, a 'collective mind' takes possession and individuals lose self-control
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What factors contribute to deindividuation according to (Zimbardo 1969)
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Anonymity and altered consciousness due to drugs or consciousness
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What do conditions that increase anonymity also do?
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Minimise concerns about evaluation by others
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What did Rehm et al (1987) do?
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Randomly assigned German schoolchildren to handball teams of 5 people, half the teams wearing orange shirts, and half wearing their normal clothes. Those in uniform were consistently found to behave more aggressively
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What did Mullen (1986) do? |
Analysed newspaper cuttings of 60 lynchings in the US. He found that the more people there were in the mob, the greater the savagery in which they killed their victims
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Who analysed 60 US lynchings?
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Mullen (1986)
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What did Cannavale et al (1970) find?
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Male and female groups responded differently under deindividuation conditions, as an increase in aggression was obtained only in the all-male groups
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What did Diener et al (1973) find?
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Greater disinhibition of aggression in males
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What did Mann (1981) find? |
In 10 of 21 'jumper' suicide cases where a crows gathered to watch, baiting had occurred. These incidents tended to occur at night, in a large crowd and when there was some distance between them and the jumper |
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What are the two possible IDA's for deindividuation? |
Gender bias (Diener et al and Cannavale) and Real-world application (Mann) |
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What did Zimbardo (1969) do? (electric shocks) |
Groups of 4 female undergraduates were required to deliver electric shocks in order to 'aid learning'. Half the participants wore bulky lab coats and hoods, sat in separate cubicles and never referred to one another by name. The other group wore their own clothes, large name tags and could see one another. Participants in the deindividuation group shocked the learner twice as long as other participants |
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How did Johnson and Downing (1979) build on Zimbardo's study? |
Participants had to wear either a KKK uniform or a nurses uniform. Participants shocked more than the control group when dressed as KKK members, and shocked less when dressed as nurses. Suggests rather than deindividuation, local group norms lead to certain behaviour |
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What did Diener et al (1976) find?
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Observed 1300 trick-or-treating children in the US. If they were anonymous (in costumes, masks or large groups) they were more likely to steal money or sweets
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What did Postmes and Spears (1998) meta-analysis of 60 studies find? |
Insufficient support for the major claims of the theory. Disinhibition and antisocial behaviour are not more commonin large groups and anonymous settings. Deindividuation wasn't found to be associaed with reduced self-awareness. Reduced self-awareness wasn't found to increase aggressive behaviour |
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What did Spivey and Prentice-Dunn (1990) find? |
Deindividuation could lead to either prosocial or antisocial behaviour depending on situational factors
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What did Francis et al (2006) find?
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Adolescents reported feeling more comfortable discussing their mental health problems in internet chat rooms than in a personal appointment with a health professional
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What did Watson (1973) find?
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Stuided 23 societies and found that those who changed their appearance prior to going to war were more destructive to their victims compared to those who didn't change their appearance
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What do Irwin and Cressey (1962) claim?
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Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison, which shapes their behaviour. They are not 'blank slates' when they enter prison
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What did Allender and Marcell (2003) find?
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Gang members disproportionally engage in acts of prison violence
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Who came up with the deprivation model?
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Paterline and Peterson (1999)
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What does the deprivation model state?
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Prisoner/patient aggression is the product of the stressful and oppressive conditions within the institution.
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What did Sykes (1958) describe as some of the specific conditions that lead to an increase in violence in prison?
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Loss of liberty, loss of autonomy and loss of security
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What did Sykes (1958) find?
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The potential threat to personal security increased anxiety levels in inmates
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What did David Wilson do at the HMP Woodhill?
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Set up 2 units for violent prisoners that were less 'prison-like'. They were less claustrophobic, the typical noise was masked by music from a radio station and the temperature was lowered so it was no longer stiflingly hot. These changes virtually eradicated assaults on prison staff and other inmates. Political pressure meant that these successful regimes were not kept
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What did McCorkle et al (1995) find?
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Overcrowding, lack of privacy and lack of meaningful activity all significantly influence peer violence
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What did Nijman et al (1999) find?
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Increased personal space failed to decrease the level of violent incidents amongst patients
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What did Poole and Regoli (1983) find?
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The best indicator of violence amongst juvenile offenders was pre-institutional violence, regardless of any situational factors in the institution
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What did Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando (2002) find?
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The deprivation model is better able to explain violence against prison staff, whereas the importation model is better able to explain violence against other inmates
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Who found that the deprivation model is better able to explain violence against prison staff, whereas the importation model is better able to explain violence against other inmates?
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What did Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando (2002) find?
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What did Harer and Steffensmeier (2006) do?
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Collected data from 58 US prisons and found that black inmates had significantly higher levels of violent behaviour, but lower levels of drug and alcohol related misconduct than white inmates, in accordance to the racial differences seen in US society
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What did DeLisi et al (2004) find?
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Inmates with prior street gang involvement were no more likely than other inmates to engage in prison violence
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What is a criticism of DeLisi et al (2004)
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The lack of correlation might be explained by the fact that violent gang members tend to be isolated from the general population
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What are Staubs 5 stages of genocide?
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1. Difficult social conditions 2. Scapegoating a less powerful group 3. Dehumanisation and negative evaluation of the target group 4. Moral values becoming inapplicable-killing begins 5. Passivity of bystanders (e.g. the UN) enhances the process |
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What are examples of institutional aggression between groups?
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6 million Jewish people in the Holocaust 800,000 Tutsi's killed in the Rwandan genocide |
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What did the Hutu's refer to Tutsi's as in order to dehumanise them?
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'cockroaches'
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What did Milgram believe about the Holocaust?
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It was primarily a result of situational pressures that forced obedience regardless of moral feelings
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What happened when the UN intervened in Rwanda?
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It hastened the perpetrators to step up their genocidal policy and 800,000 died in just 100 days
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What does O'Brein (2003) claim some see immigrants as?
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'polluting threats to the social order'
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What does Mandel (1998) say about Milgram's explanation for the Holocaust?
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It is monocausal and does not match historical record
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What does Goldhagen (1996) suggest about the Holocaust?
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The main causal factor was a form of anti-Semitism that was so deeply entrenched in the German people that they implicitly condoned the elimination is Jewish people
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What does SDO stand for and what is it?
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Social Dominance Orientation. People with high SDO endorse social hierarchies and see the world as a 'competitive jungle'
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What did Esses et al (2008) find?
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Individuals high in SDO have a tendency to dehumanise outgroup members, particularly foreign refugees and asylum seekers. Negative depictions of refugees lead to greater contempt in high SDO individuals than low SDO individuals. High SDO individuals believe certain groups are less human than others
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What do low levels of Serotonin lead to?
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Aggression
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What do high levels of Dopamine lead to?
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Aggression
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How does Serotonin reduce aggression?
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It inhibits responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise result in an aggressive response
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What have low levels of Serotonin been linked with?
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Increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and violent suicide
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What did Mann et al (1990) do?
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Gave 35 healthy subjects a drug which depletes serotonin. Using a questionnaire, they found the treatment was associated with an increase in hostility and aggression scores in males, but not females
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What did Lavine (1997) find?
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Increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have also been associated with increases in aggressive behaviour
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What did Buitelaar (2003) find?
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Antipsychotics (which reduce Dopamine activity) have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents
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What did Scerbo and Raine (1993) do?
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A meta-analysis of 29 studies that examined neurotransmitter levels in antisocial children and adults. These studies consistently found lower levels of serotonin in aggressive individuals, but found no significant rise or fall in dopamine levels. Indications of reduced levels of serotonin were found in all antisocial groups, but was particularly marked in those who had attempted suicide
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What did Raleigh et al (1991) find?
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Vervet monkeys fed a high-serotonin diet exhibited decreased levels of aggression. Those fed low serotonin diets exhibited increased aggressive behaviour
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What did Popova et al (1991) find?
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Animals that are selectively bread for domestication see an increase in serotonin levels over generations
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What did Bond (2005) find?
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Antidepressant drugs (which raise serotonin levels) lower aggression
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How are biological explanations for aggression reductionist?
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The complexity of human behaviour means a biological explanation on its own is not enough to explain all the many different aspects of aggressive and violent behaviour
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What is an androgen?
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A male sex hormone (testosterone)
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What did Dabbs et al (1987) find?
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Those with the highest levels of testosterone had a history of primarily violent crimes, whereas those with the lowest testosterone levels had committed only non-violent crimes
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What did Lindman et al (1987) find?
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Young males who behaved aggressively when drunk had higher testosterone levels than those who did not behave aggressively
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What does Wingfield et al (1990) propose?
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In monogamous species, testosterone levels should only rise above the baseline breeding level in response to social challenges, such as male-male aggression or threats to status
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What did Archer (1991) do? |
Analysed the results of 230 males over 5 studies. Found a low correlation between testosterone and aggression. However the studies varied in terms of type of participant and the form and measurement of aggression |
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What did Book et al (2001) do? |
A meta-analysis of 45 studies established a mean correlation of 0.14 |
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How did Archer (2005) criticise Book et al (2001) |
Said methodological issues with the study mean a correlation of 0.08 was more appropriate |
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What does Albert et al (1993) claim? |
Some studies show no link between aggression and testosterone, particularly those that have compared testosterone levels of aggressive and non-aggressive |
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What have most studies into testosterone and aggression involved? |
Small groups of men within prisons, using either self-report measures of aggression or judgement based solely on the severity of the crime committed |
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Outline Van Goozen et al (1994)
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35 FTM and 15 MTF transsexuals completed questionnaires to assess proneness to aggression. FTM were given testosterone, MTF were given an anti-androgen for 3 months before completing the questionnaire again. FTM reported an increase in aggressive tendencies, MTF reported a decrease. Causational, not correlational. Participants may have been conforming to new gender roles though
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What does Mazur (1985) suggest?
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We should distinguish aggression (the intent to inflict injury) from dominance (achieving or maintain status over another). In humans, testosterone leads to dominance more than aggression
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Does Cortisol increase or decrease aggression?
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Decrease
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According to Dabbs et al (1991), what affect does Cortisol have on aggression?
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It increases anxiety and the likelihood of social withdrawal
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Which hormone inhibits Testosterone?
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Cortisol
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What did Tennes and Kreye (1985) find?
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Low Cortisol levels in violent schoolchildren
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What did Virkkunen (1985) find?
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Low Cortisol levels in habitual violent offenders
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Outline McBurnett et al (2000)
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Studied Cortisol levels of boys with behavioural issues over 4 years. Those with low Cortisol levels exhibited 3x the number of aggressive symptoms and began anti-social acts at a younger age
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Who found that the association between testosterone and aggression is higher for female than male samples?
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Archer et al (2005)
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What did Baucom et al (1985) find?
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Women with higher Testosterone levels had higher occupational status, possibly as a result of being more assertive
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What did Eisenegger (2001) find?
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Testosterone could make women act 'nicer' rather than more aggressively, depending on the situation
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Outline Klinesmith et al (2006)
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Had male college students provide a saliva sample, interact with either a gun or a children's toy for 15 minutes and then provide another saliva sample. Those who interacted with the gun showed significantly greater increases in testosterone and behaved more aggressively toward another participant than the other group
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What did Coccaro (1997) find?
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Nearly 50% of the variance in direct aggressive behaviour could be attributed to genetic factors
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What did Hutchings and Mednick (1975) find?
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A study of over 14,000 adoptions in Denmark found that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents (particularly fathers) with criminal convictions
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What are the three key concerns with the genetic approach?
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More than one gene usually contributes to behaviour As well as genetic, there are many non-genetic (ie environmental) influences on the manifestation of aggressive behaviour These influences may interact with each other. Genetic factors may affect which environmental factors have an influence, and vice versa (gene-environment interaction) |
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What are the main issues with studying individuals convicted of violent crime?
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Convictions for violent crime are relatively few compared to the vast number of violent attacks that never result in a conviction Offenders designated as 'violent' on the basis of a court conviction are not necessarily the most serious, persistent offenders |
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Why is it important that studies into genes and aggression are accurate?
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Some advocate extreme measures (such as genetic engineering, chemical castration) so the tentative nature of conclusions must be clear or there will be far-reaching ethical consequences
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What is the link between genes and MAOA?
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A gene produces MAOA. MAOA regulates serotonin in the brain
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Outline Brunner et al (1993)
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Many male members of a Dutch family behaved particularly violently and aggressively, and a large proportion had seen involved in serious crime, including rape and arson. They were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA and a defect in the gene
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Outline Caspi et al (2002)
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Researched 500 male children. Those with low MAOA were significantly more likely to grow up to exhibit antisocial behaviour but only if they had been maltreated as children. An example of gene-environment interaction
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What have adoption studies shown about genes and violence?
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The highest rates of criminal violence in adopted children occur when both biological and adoptive parents have a history of violent crime
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Outline Miles and Carey (1997) meta-analysis
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24 twin and adoption studies. Suggested that strong genetic influence could account for as much as 50% of the variance in aggression. In youth, both genes and family environment were key, but at later ages the influence of genes increased and the influence of environment decreased
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How did mode of assessment affect the results of Miles and Carey's meta-analysis?
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Genetic factors explained a large proportion of the variance of aggressive behaviour in studies that used parental or self reports. Observational studies showed less genetic contribution and a greater influence of environmental factors
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When the Bobo doll study used twins as participants, what happened?
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There was no difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, suggesting that aggression is more as a result of environment than genes
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What two things do studies into the genetic role of aggression often fail to do?
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Distinguish between violent and non-violent crime and distinguish between those who are habitually violent and for those who behaved violently once
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Do older or more modern studies show a greater correlation between genes and aggression?
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Older studies
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What did the Surgeon's Report on youth violence (2001) conclude?
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'The data does not suggest a strong role for heredity in violence'
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What did Rhee and Waldman's (2002) meta-analysis find?
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Found that aggression was largely a product of genetic contributions. However, also found that various factors such as age of participant and mode of assessment moderated the genetic influence on aggression
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What do Daly and Wilson (1988) claim regarding sexual jealousy?
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Men have evolved several different strategies to deter their female partners from committing adultery, which range from vigilance to violence, but all are fuelled by male sexual jealousy and evolved to deal with the threat of parental uncertainty
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What is the consequence of cuckoldry for men?
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The man may unwittingly invest resources in offspring that are not his own
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Why did men evolve sexual jealousy?
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To deter sexual infidelity and minimise the risk of cuckoldry
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What does Buss (1988) believe are male mate-retention strategies?
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'Direct guarding' and 'negative inducements' in the form of violence or threats
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What did Dobash and Dobash (1984) find
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Battered women cited sexual jealousy as the key cause of the violence directed towards them
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What does Daly et al (1982) claim?
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Sexual jealousy is claimed to be the single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes in the US |
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What does Dell (1984) conclude?
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Sexual jealousy accounted for 17% of all cases of murder in the UK
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How many 'love-triangle' killings are male-male and how many are female-female
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92% and 8%
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What are the practical applications of research into sexual jealousy? |
Findings of studies can be used to alert people of potential danger signs, and help can be given before violence has taken place
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Outline Shackelford (2005) |
Used over 1000 US participants in committed heterosexual relationships. Males answered on mate retention strategies and how often they performed 26 types of violent act against their partners. Females were asked about their partners mate retention strategies and if/how violence used against them. Direct guarding and intersexual negative inducements positively correlated with violence scores. Females reported partners who used vigilance and emotional manipulation were most likely to be violent against them |
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What is a key issue with Shackleford et al? |
It used surveys, a self-report technique |
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What is social desirability bias? |
A tendency to respond in a way that will be viewed favorably by others |
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Outline Takahashi et al (2006) |
Showed the neural response to imagined scenes of sexual infidelity and emotional infidelity. Men showed much greater activity in brain areas associated with aggression than females when imagining scenes of sexual infidelity |
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What do Edlund and Sagarin (2009) claim? |
Our understanding of the relationship between sexual jealousy and aggression is limited. Research does't tell us if perceived locus of responsibility moderates the jealous response or whether the degree of perceived infidelity is important |
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Who claims that our understanding of the relationship between sexual jealousy and aggression is limited? |
Edlund and Sagarin (2009) |
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Why are studies into mate retention strategies gender biased? |
They only focus on male mate retention studies, but women have strategies and can be violent too |
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Outline Felson (1997) |
Examined 2060 murders in the US and found that women were twice as likely to murder out of jealousy as men |
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What is the definition of infidelity? |
Voluntary sexual relations between an individual who is married and someone who is not the individual's spouse |
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What did a BBC 2006 survey find about infidelity? |
Men are more likely to engage in extra-marital affairs than women 1 in 10 women admitted to being unfaithful to their husbands |
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What is a possible consequence of men's perceptions or suspicion of infidelity according to Goetz et al 2008? |
Rape or sexual coercion |
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What did Shields and Hanneke (1983) find? |
Female victims of partner rape were more likely to have engaged in extra-marital sex than women who were not raped by their partner |
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What did Camilleri (2004) find? |
Sexual assault of a female by her male partner was directly linked with the perceived risk of her infidelity |
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Why might attacks on pregnant women be an evolutionary adaption? |
If cuckoldry takes place, the male risks investing his resources in offspring that aren't his own. Terminating the pregnancy may eliminate the offspring of a rival and leave the woman free to bear offspring to him |
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How can men retain partners? |
By conferring benefits or by inflicting costs |
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What does Shackelford et al (2000) say about uxorocide? |
A not all men have the resources to provide benefits, some men are especially prone to using threats or physical violence |
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What do Daly and Wilson (1988) say about uxorocide? |
The death of the partner from partner violence may be an unintended outcome of an evolutionary adaptation that was designed for control rather than death |
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What did Camilleri (2004) find about sexual coercion? |
The risk of a partners infidelity predicts sexual coercion among males but not females. Probably as only men experience cuckoldry |
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What did Burch and Gallup (2004) find? |
The frequency of violent acts towards pregnant mates was around double that directed towards partners who were not pregnant, with sexual jealousy characterising the men who committed violent acts against pregnant partners |
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What did Valladares et al (2005) find? |
Half of a sample of pregnant abused women suffered blows directly to the abdomen with the intention of of increasing the probability of damaging the foetus |
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What do Buss and Shackelford (1997) say about the limitations of evolutionary explanations of aggression? |
It cannot account for why different males react differently when faced with their partners infidelity |
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What does Wilson (1975) claim about xenophobia? |
it has been documented in 'virtually ever group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisation' |
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What does Macdonald (1992) suggest? |
It is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders, as the over perception of threat is less costly than it's under perception |
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What did Foldesi (1996) observe among Hungarian football crowds? |
The racist conduct of a core of extremist supporters led to an increase of spectators xenophobic outbursts |
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How have Celtic tried to tackle xenophobia? |
Bhoys against Bigotry campaign |
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What was the purpose of the 'Show racism the red card' campaign? |
To counter the influence of groups such as the EDL and the BNP in British football |
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What is territoriality? |
The protective response to an invasion of one's territory |
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What do animals do when showing territoriality? |
Show threat displays towards outsiders and attack with greater vigor when defending a home territory |
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What is an example of a threat display in sports? |
The Haka |
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What did Neave and Wolfson (2003) find? |
Football teams playing at home were far more likely to win than the visiting team partly because of a huge surge of adrenaline before a match, which did not occur for away games. Goalkeepers (who have the biggest burden of 'defending the territory') had higher levels of testosterone than other players |
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What did Lewis et al (2005) and Pollard and Pollard (2005) |
Crowd support was rated as the most significant factor contributing to home advantage by football fans The advantage has been shown to operate even in very small crowds |
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What did Moore and Brylinsky (1993) find? |
Support of home crowds do not always increase the performance of teams |
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In societies that experience frequent warfare, why must men compete for females? |
Males are much less likely to escape infanticide because of their potential usefulness in battle |
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What do Divale and Harris (1976) suggest? |
Men who do well in battle are 'rewarded' with access to female mates |
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What did Chagnon (1988) find? |
Male warriors in traditional societies tend to have more sexual partners and more children suggesting a direct reproductive benefit |
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What is another benefit of warfare for males? |
Acquisition of status within the group |
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What does Iron (2004) claim? |
The costliness of permanent displays (scars, mutilation) serve as an honest sign of commitment to the group |
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What does Thorpe (2003) claim? |
Scars minimise a males ability to abscond to another group and increase commitment to their group |
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What did Palmer and Tilley (1995) find? |
Male youth street gang members have more sexual partners than ordinary young males |
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What was found about the sex appeal of military men? |
They have greater sex appeal but only if they show bravery in combat |
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What do LeBlanc and Register (2004) claim about warfare? |
It isn't a biological compulsion but are instead a consequence of environmental challenges |
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Why does war take place? |
Because humans shifted from a nomadic existence to a settled one |
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What does Watson (1973) believe is more to blame for torture and mutilation during war than evolution? |
Deindividuation |
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What does Adams (1983) claim? |
The idea of a woman warrior is unheard of within most societies |
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Why are explanations of warfare gender biased? |
The understanding of the displays typically found in warfare is limited to the behaviour of males rather than females |
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Name the 5 explanations for the media and anti-social behaviour?
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Observational learning and imitation; cognitive priming; desensitisation; lowered physiological arousal; justification
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Outline observational learning and imitation
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Children observe media models and imitate their behaviour, especially if they admire or identify with the model. Media also informs the possible positive and negative consequences of violent behaviour
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What did Phillips (1983) find?
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A significant rise in the murders following televised heavyweight boxing contests, but no such rise after televised Superbowl contests
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What key piece of research supports observational learning and imitation?
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Bandura's Bobo doll studies
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What happened when the Bobo doll study used a cartoon as a model?
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Moderate levels of aggression were displayed
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What did Cumberbatch (2001) say about the Jamie Bulger case?
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There was no link between they boys actions and them watching the film Child's Play
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Outline cognitive priming
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After watching a violent programme, the viewer is primed to respond aggressively because a network of memories involving aggression is retrieved
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Outline Joseph (1987)
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Hockey players were deliberately frustrated and then shown a violent or non-violent film where the actor held a walkie-talkie. In a subsequent game the boys behaved most aggressively if they had seen the violent film and the referee in their game was holding a walkie-talkie.
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Outline desensitisation
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Media violence may lead to violence being more normal and acceptable, and therefore be more likely to behave violently themselves
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What does Cumberbatch (2001) argue about desensitisation?
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Being 'used' to screen violence doesn't make people used to violence in real life. Screen violence is more likely to make children 'frightened' than 'frightening'
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Outline lowered physiological arousal
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The arousal simulated by viewing violence is unpleasant at first but those who constantly watch violent television become used to it, and their emotional and physiological responses decline
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What did Giles (2003) find?
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There are stronger desensitisation affects for males than there are for females
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What do Huesmann and Moise report about lowered physiological arousal?
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Boys who are heavy television watchers show lower-than-average physiological arousal in response to new scenes of violence
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What do Feshbach and Singer (1971) believe about watching violence?
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Watching violence has beneficial, cathartic effects-arousal allows people to release pent-up aggressive energies
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Outline justification |
Children who behave aggressively may also watch violent television programmes to relieve their guilt and justify their own aggression |
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What did Liss and Reinhardt (1979) suggest? |
The use of aggression by prosocial characters gives an aura of moral justification to their aggression, with which children readily identify |
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What did Paik and Comstock's (1994) meta-analysis find? |
A highly significant relationship between television violence and aggressive behaviour. The greatest effect was evident in preschool children, and the effect was slightly higher in males than females |
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What does Noble (1975) report about Bandura's reseach |
One child said 'Look Mummy! There's a doll we have to hit' |
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When did lab experiments on effects of the media on aggression begin to die out? |
The 1980's |
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Outline Belson (1978) |
Interviewed over 1500 adolescent boys. Found that those who watched the least television when they were young were the least aggressive in adolescence. However, those who watched the most television in youth were around 50% less aggressive than those who watched a moderate mount. Suggests the link between watching television and aggression is unpredictable |
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Outline Charlton et al (2000) |
St Helena only received television in 1995. Little changed following the arrival of TV, with the vast majority of measures of prosocial and antisocial behaviour showing no differences |
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What did Boyle (1999) find regarding gender bias and media impacts on anti-social behaviour? |
Effects research has primarily focused on male-on-male physical violence. Often viewed in labs Effects research has frequently used unrepresentative samples (e.g male students) and generalised the findings to all viewers. Gender bias is hidden through gender neutral terms such as 'college students' or 'viewers' |
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What are the four explanations for media influences on pro-social behaviour? |
Exposure to prosocial behaviour; acquisition of prosocial behaviours and norms; developmental factors; parental mediation |
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Outline exposure to prosocial behaviour |
Programmes contain frequent prosocial lessons, and aren't dominated by antisocial behaviours |
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What did Greenberg (1980) find? |
An equivalent number of prosocial and antisocial acts in any hours of popular US children's shows |
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What did Woodard (1999) find? |
77% of programmes surveyed contained at least 1 prosocial message |
