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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Intentionality Detector (ID)
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inferring the intent of a moving object (it may bite me or groom me)
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Eye-Direction Detector (EDD)
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interprets eye gaze
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Shared-Attention Mechanisms (SAM)
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involves 3-way interaction (A & B are looking at C and see the same thing)
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Theory-Of-Mind Module (TOMM)
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equivalent to belief-desire reasoning (develops around the age of 4)
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Winthrop and Kellogg
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Female chimp named "GUA"
Compared with their son Donald Interested in developmental similarities and differences Donald imitated GUA's vocalizations |
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Keith and Cathy Hayes
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Female chimp named "VIKI"
Focus of project was teaching Viki to speak Viki learned 4 spoken words: "Mama", "Papa", "Cup", and "Up" Published book, "The Ape in Our House"; Viki was very famous in the U.S. She died at age 6 unexpectedly from encephalitis, devastating her human parents |
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Allan and Beatrix Gardner
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Female chimp named "Washoe", for Washoe County of the University of Nevada at Reno was located
Was taught ASL (American Sign Language or Ameslan) gestures Immersed in total sign language environment; no speech used around her She learned 130+ signs during first few years of project At age 6, Washoe and Dr. Fouts moved to University of Oklahoma to Institution of Primate Studies |
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David Premack
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Female chimp named "Sarah"
Taught language system consisting of plastic shapes that stood for words Demonstrated understanding of analogies and other complex concepts Provided first evidence for ToM in chimpanzees (1978) Concepts learned by Sarah: "Same" versus "Different" Names for her teachers and herself Names of foods and objects in her environment Analogies Comprehension of "Relations between Relations" |
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LANA Project
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Initiated by Duane Rumbaugh in 1970 at Yerkes Primate Center
LANA stands for Language Analogues Lana learned graphic symbols that Rumbaugh called "LEXIGRAMS" Symbols were presented on a computer interfaced keyboard in Lana's room |
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Dr. Francine (Penny) Patterson
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Female gorilla named "Koko"
Taught Koko ASL signs Longest running sign language project Does not publish in scientific journals Difficult to assess what Koko really knows or understands |
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Chantek
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Male orangutan named Chantak
Dr. Lyn Miles Immersed Chantek in sign language Acquired ASL gestures similarly to original study with Washoe |
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Is there currently enough information across the primate order to generate an all-encompassing theory of primate cognition?
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Empirical evidence across Order Primates still limited
Too few species studied, either in wild or captivity Little known about social cognition of many species in the wild |
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How are features of primate cognition different from other mammalian species?
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Two Domans:
Physical Social Have evolved cognitive adaptations through natural selection critical to survival |
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Physical Domain
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Object permanence
Recognition of spatial relationships Sensitivity to quantity Recognize of symmetry (sameness) |
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Social Domain
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Individual recognition of conspecifics
Recognition of kinship relationships Knowledge of past or on-going behavioral interactions; own relationships and observing of others' |
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Use of both physical and social domains to generate new strategies such as:
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Tool use
Coalition-Building Foraging approaches Social learning Significant survival value in all' contributes toward acquiring food, mates and leaving offspring |
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General Mammalian Cognition
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Comples abilities for spacial navigation and memory, including capacities for cognitive maps
Can track invisible displacements and show object permanence Engage in object manipulation, some tool use and physical problem-solving |
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Other Mammalian Skills
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Discrimination learning abilities
Categorization Quantity judgments Memory Can acquire problem-solving strategies such as learning set Able to learn about spatial relations such as detours and features or physical objects |
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Mammalian Social Domains
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Do engage in complex social interactions with conspecifics
Recognition of individuals Form long-term stable relationships Make predictions about behavior based on communicative displays Form coalitions and alliances Some instances of reciprocal altruism Some hunt cooperatively Some species warn conspecifics Capable of social learning Evidence for behavior traditions in communities Evidence for learning from individuals through direct interaction and observation |
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Primates and Tertiary Relations
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Physical knowledge base form mammalian heritage
Primates also understand about relationship that objects and other have with one another Interactions and relations among third parties without direct involvement of observer |
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One of the critical features necessary for a child to show Theory of Mind, according to Simon Baron-Cohen, includes a:
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ToM Module
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Grooming started out among early primates as truly functional and remains so with the more primitive primates today. However, for the majority of current species, grooming is purely
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Social
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In the Keeli & Ivy film, "Chimps Like Us", both young chimpanzees were taught to
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Spell out simple English words
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In the 1950's, the Hayes tried to teach a chimpanzee named Viki to control her lips and breathing, in order to produce sounds similar to human speech
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True
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Observations among various chimpanzee groups over the past several decades has shown repeatedly that
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Apes do not regularly engage in teaching
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A published anecdotal account of a young bonobo named Chim, who was hand reared by Robert Yerkes, reported that after Chim observed a young boy began spitting in front of him, the pygmy chimp also tried to spit, though unsuccessful. He was observed the next day in an observation room, apparently practicing spitting, and was ultimately quite proficient
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True
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Spoken language is productive symbol use, and language comprehension is receptive symbol understanding
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True
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The video, "The Demonic Ape" began with the re-enactment of the tragic death of a
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Human Baby
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Although more such descriptions are now available, thanks to two compilations of observations from primatologists that were published by ______, the majority of information available about pretense in nonhuman primates is still anecdotal
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Whiten & Byrne
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It has been establish definitively that the Japanese macaques of Koshima Island learned to wash sweet potatoes by imitation
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False
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One reason that is has been difficult to demonstrate MSR in most gorillas that have been tested is the fat that gorillas
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Looking directly at another individual is aggressive
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According to Baron-Cohen, another important cognitive capacity necessary for an individual, in order to ultimately show ToM is
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A shard attention mechanism
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In the area of social cognition among nonhuman primates, there have been definitive observations of monkey social structure that show that they have an appreciation of the perspective of other monkeys. That is, monkeys show ToM.
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False
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In studies of quantity judgment, Boysen et al. found that chimps were able to choose the smaller of two numerals, in order to receive a larger reward
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Two Numerals
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According to Tomsello & Call, primates differ from other mammals n their understanding and use of
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Tertiary Relations
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If chimps are shown unequivocally to possess ToM, these findings would be significant because it would mean that
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Chimps can attribute mental states to others
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One component of social cognition among nonhuman primates is individual recognition of conspecifics
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True
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According to Robert Mitchell, in an influential theoretical paper, mirror self-recognition is equivalent to
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Understanding the properties of mirrors
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Unlike their wild counterparts, rehabilitate orangutans show a great deal of object manipulation and
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Imitation
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The responses of most interest to Gallup in the MSR study were those ______ that were elicited when the subjects were marked with red dye and given access to a mirror again
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Self-Directed Behaviors
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Goodall (1986) reported that groups of male chimpanzees out on border patrol are more quiet than usual, suggesting
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Awareness of the noise they might make
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Chimpanzees, one gorilla & an orangutan have been taught various language systems. Thus, evidence for apes' capacity for demonstrating semantic understanding of symbols has been established over the past 40 years
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True
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Earned a reputation in the field of psychology from my pioneering studies of problem-solving by chimpanzees
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Wolfgang Kohler
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What species-typical behavior among gorillas may account for why they do no readily show self-recognitiomn, even though two highly-encultured gorillas (Koko & King) have been tested successfully for MSR
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Staring is aggressive in gorillas
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The concept of ToM was first described in a 1978 paper by ______, based on findings from the chimpanzee Sarah
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David Premack
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Japanese macaques live under harsher conditions than most primates in the islands of northern Japan. Some groups, however, take advantages of a local environmental asset during the cold winter months
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They use natural hot springs as "hot tubs"
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Children, just like chimps, develop MSR around 12 months
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False
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According to the BBC film you saw during our last class, "The Demonic Ape," the level of aggression observed in Goodall's chimps at Gombe is _____ seen elsewhere in other chimpanzee groups across Africa
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More than
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It has been demonstrated that, on some tasks, chimpanzee outperform human children
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True
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In a study of mirror self recognition in pigs, Boysen and she students discovered
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Pigs did not show MSR
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No nonhuman animal subject has ever learned a binary number system nor would you predict that they could
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False
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The Trap Tube Task, devised by Elisabetta Visalberghi and her students, demonstrated that capuchin monkeys were _______ solve the task using a ______ strategy
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Unable and Cognitive
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The pioneering studies of Keith and Cathy Hayes with the chimp named Viki were focused on teaching her
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To talk
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To date, only primate species have shown MSR
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False
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A recently-discovered form of tool use reported by Japanese investigators at Bossou, Gunea, found the chimpanzees stomping on the crown center of a oil palm tree, in order to reach the delicious pith in the middle. They named this new strategy
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Pestle Pounding
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Patterson reported the acquisition of language by a gorilla named Koko, who used ______ as her language modality
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Signed English
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Sign language studies have been conducted with the following primate species: Chimpanzees; an orangutan; a gorilla
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True
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In the original mirror self-recognition studies by Gallup, he was able to provide experimental evidence that chimps knew it was their own image by
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Marking them with red dye while they were asleep, and recording the types of self-directed behaviors they made when exposed to a mirror again
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Simon Baren-Cohen proposed a theory identifying difficulties in frontal loval executive function in autism spectrum disorders, outlined a number of critical competencies necessary for understanding ToM
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True
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When an animal looks at a mirror for the first time, they typically react as though
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The image in the mirror is another animal
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Betty, a New Caledonian crow, was able to use an innovative strategy to solve a complex tool-using problem during a laboratory experiment by
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Making a simple hook by bending a wire and retrieving a small pail from a clear narrow tube
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In the pioneering study of mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees ______ provided a new methodology for studying the self-concept
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The Mark Test
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Eye direction detectors (EDD) are a necessary requirement, according to ______ for a child to show ToM
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Simon Baren-Cohen
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When 11 hand-raised capuchin monkeys were tested for their ability to imitate the actions of a demonstrator monkey when opening a hinged box, the results showed the the monkeys were capable
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Of emulation but not imitation
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MSR emerges once
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An individual learns how a mirror works
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In the "Pan-Pipe" study with chimpanzees, the experimenters presented a control condition during which the pan-pipe's block appeared to life automatically. They referred to this phase of the experiment as the
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Ghost Condition
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Main conclusion for Reaux et. al regarding do chimpanzees have ToM
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Chimpanzees do not develop an understanding of visual attention as an indicator of attention over time
Chimpanzees were successful on the back/front condition but initially responded randomly to the other conditions |
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Reaux, Theall & Povinelli (1991)
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Longitudinal study from chimps' ages 5/6 years old
Tested on same conditions over our years Over 14 experiments, chimps extracted rules for responding: Face Rule: Gesture to pears with face visible Eye Rule: Gesture to person whose eyes are visible Rules, and not an understanding of others' attention, were used |
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Ohio State ToM on Chimpanzees experiment
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Four control & two experimental trials per session
Six experimental conditions All conditions included one experimenter who could see, and one who could not Condition 1: Bucket over head (not seeing) Bucket beside head (seeing) Condition 2: Blindfold over eyes (not seeing) Blindfold over mouth (seeing) Condition 3: Screen over face (not seeing) Screen beside face (seeing) Condition 4: Back facing animal (not seeing) Forward face animal (seeing) Condition 5: Gazing away (not seeing) Facing forward (seeing) Condition 6: Facing forward, eyes closed (not seeing) Facing forward, yes open (seeing) Results suggest the the chimps were able to recognize that someone who can't see them also can't see their (the chimps) gestures This suggest immediate understanding of importance of visual attention It appears that chimps raised in multi stages, multisex groups, with on-going human relationships and enrichment have a different understanding of internal attention states |
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Face and Eye Rules
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In contrast to Reaux et al. where chimps are significant on the screen/bucket and screen/gaze away conditions but not the blindfold/eyes closed condition, these subjects were not significant on any of the conditions on its own
This suggest that the animals are not making use of stimulus-based rules to guide their choices |
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The Flimsy Tool Task: Furlong, Boose, Harris & Boysen
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Chimps both in the wild and in captivity use tools for foraging as well as other activities
Observe others using tools, use discarded tools, etc. Social learning is also important for captive chimps tool use Presented the chimps with 2 tools: 1 hard, 1 flimsy to retrieve yogurt - Rigid would retrieve the food Flimsy would not To control for cueing, followed the same procedures every time with all chimps Showed the properties of the tools (rigid hard, flimsy soft) Placed handles through enclosure Said to them, "Which tool do you want?" or "How can you get your snack?" Allowed them to pull We recorded which tool they selected, whether they were successful and later recorded response time |
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Enculturation
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Rearing in human environments under certain conditions
Wild: Live entirely in their natural habitats Captive: Live in human captivity, minimal interactions with humans and their artifacts Nursery-Raised: Raised from a young age with peer conspecifics and contact with humans and their artifacts, No training aimed at specific outcomes Laboratory-Trained: Raised mostly in human captivity, trained in particular task (some may be symbolic) Home-Raised: Raised by humans in a human cultural environment, Near daily contact with humans and their artifacts in meaningful interactions |
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A link between rearing and tool use?
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Other studies suggest link between enculturation and tool use
Menzel - Restriction rear failed Brent et al. - Nursery reared failed When Povinelli found this results we suspected his chimps failed because of enculturation Enculturation likely impacts tool use capacities Enculturation generally affects social learning Enculturation may sensitize chimp to attend to relecant features of task |
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Theory of Mind
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The awareness that other people have knowledge and desires, and the ability to take the perspective of others
Children are not born with a belief-desire theory of mind Generally developed around the age of four Cultural learning is transmitted through certain processes (E.G. imitative learning, instructed learning) These processes of learning require a ToM Nonhuman primates do not have a ToM according to Tomasello et al. Therefore, nonhuman primates cannot engage in cultural learning and do not have culture This lack of culture is evidenced by lacking key aspects of culture (E.G. Accumulation of modifications over generations) |
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Belief-Desire Reasoning
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We understand that our own behavior is based on what we believe (know, expect) and we desire (want, wish) and we assume the totters' behavior is based on their beliefs and desires and that our beliefs and desires can be different from those of others
Belief-Desire theory of mind is tested using the False-Belief Task (Maxi Test) False-Belief Task - Children observe Maxi who watches a treat being hidden and then Maxi leaves the room and the treat is moved and the children guess where Maxi will look for the treat |
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Development of ToM
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Related to the number of adults and older peers a child interacts with daily
Family size Number of older siblings is associated with solving false-belief task Pretend play Social play |
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Social Learning
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Individual learning that is influenced in someway by the social environment, learning from another
-Chimps and nut cracking |
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Culture Learning
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Involves taking the perspective of others, learning through another
Autistic children and nonhuman primates are "acultural" |
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Imitative Learning
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When the learner internalizes something of the demonstrator's behavioral strategies
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Instructed Learning
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When the learner internalizes the instructions of the teacher
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Collaborative Learning
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When peers work together to construct something new that neither has before the interaction began
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Tomasello et al. believe nonhuman primates lack 3 essential characteristic necessary for possession culture
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Human cultures have certain traditions that are learned by virtually every group member (E.G. language, religious rituals, dress)
---Potato washing in Japanese macaques and termite fishing in chimps don't count (less than half in the group learned these behaviors) Human children use methods of learning highly similar to adults ----Systematic observations of potato washing and termite fishing are not available Human cultural traditions often show an accumulation of modifications over generations ---Macaques and chimps may be learning behaviors individually |
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Gallup's MSR Experiment
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Chimps observed for baseline behaviors
Animals tested individually; given access to large mirror outside cage Observations made of behaviors that emerged Subjects displayed social behaviors toward the image in mirror, presumably another chimpanzee Social responses to "other chimp" in the mirror were replaced by mirror-contingent behaviors (facial expressions, watching their own movements in mirror) Mirror contingent behaviors gave way to self-directed behaviors, including areas of their bodies that were normally not visually accessible Chimps were anesthetized and marked with an odorless, non-toxic dye, Rhodamine B on their brow ridge and top of the opposite ear Rhodamine B is a brilliant fushia red color After recovering from anesthesia, chimps given individual access to mirror once again Gallup interested in number of self-directed behaviors toward the marked areas "The Mark Test" Chimps did show greater number of responses to marks on brow & ear than baseline observations Gallup concluded that the animals recognized themselves in the mirror He proposed that MSR indicated that chimps has a "sense of self" or a "self-concept" |
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Robert Mitchell on MSR
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Says chimps learn "mirror contingent behaviors" - learn about the properties of mirrors
No need to postulate "self concept" or "consciousness" in the mix |
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Evan & Swartz MSR
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Conducted MSR tests on chimpanzees in an African research laboratory
Some animals showed MSR, others did not Contrary to Gallup's idea that all chimps should show MSR; some did not Did not offer definitive reason why some of their subjects failed the mark test |
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Povinelli & Eddy MSR
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Longitudinal and cross-sectional study of MSR in large population of captive chimpanzees
Found range of responses that appeared to be age-related Determined from results that chimpanzees acquired MSR much later than human children, between 7-8 years old |
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Do other species show MSR?
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Yes, but only a select few
Orangutans, recently 1 gorilla (Koko( and bonobos No monkey species has ever passed the mark test |
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Non-primate species tested?
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Yes
Elephants - Failed mark test. Were able to use mirror-guided information to find hidden food (like monkeys) Potbellied pigs - Showed aggressive (social) responses only. Mirrors eventually removed; failed as enrichment Both species failed to show self-recognition |
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Gorillas and the MSR Mark Test
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For years, no evidence that gorilla should show MSR; did not pass the mark test
Povinelli proposed that gorillas once has MSR, but "lost it". Apparently they didn't "need" it If gorillas can't pass the mark test, that would imply that they have no self concept. In turn they would have no ToM |
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MSR related to Tom
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MSR emerges earlier than ToM
Neural and behavioral mechanisms that support MSR likely necessary for ToM |
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Who shows MSR?
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Children with autism do not show MSR or ToM
People with schizophrenia also do not show MSR Only members of the Great Ape family have shown MSR, including humans |
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Chimpanzees and Scale Models
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Chimpanzees are able to solve scale model task similar to that used with human children
The chimpanzees reeached significant performance as a group, with females usually out-performing males |
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Dual Representation Hypothesis
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The reason that young children can no solve scale model task, that the older children are able to represent the scale model and the actual room - recognizing the link between the mode l and the real room
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