Psychology

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Structuralism

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based on the notion that the task of psychology is to anayze conciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related.

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Introspection

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the careful, systematic, self-observation of ones own concious experience

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functionalism

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based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of conciousness, rather than its structure.

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natural selection

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heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to be passed onto subsequent generations and thus come to be selected over time.

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Psychoanalytic theory

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attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconcious determinants of behavior.

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Behaviorism

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theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should stsudy only observable behavior

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Behavior

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any observable response or actvity by an organism

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Humanism

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a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth

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Applied psychology

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branch of psychology concerned with everyday, pratical problems

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clinical psychology

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branch of psychology concerened with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

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Cognition

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the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge

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Evolutionary Psychology

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examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations.

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positive psychology

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uses theory and research to better uderstand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence

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Psychiatry

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branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment if psychological problems and disorders.

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Empiricism

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the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation

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Theory

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system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

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operational definition

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describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable

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independent variable

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a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on other variables

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Dependent variable

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variable that is thought to be affected by changes in the independent variable

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experimental group

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consists of subjects who recieve some special treatment

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control group

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similar subjects who do not recieve the special treatment given to the experimental group

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extraneous variables

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any variables besides the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study

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confounding variables

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occurs when two variables are likned together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects

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random assignment

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occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study

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neurons

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individual cells in the nervous system that recieve, intergrate, and transmit information

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soma

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cell body, contains the cell nucleus and mich of the chemical machinery common to most cells

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dendrites

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the parts of a neuron that are specialized to recieve information

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axon

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a long thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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myelin sheath

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insulating material that encases some axons

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terminal buttons

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small knobs which secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters

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synapse

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a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another

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Glia

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cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons

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Action potential

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very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travles along an axon

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absolute refractory period

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the minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin

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synaptic cleft

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a microscopic gap between the teminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron

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neurotransmitters

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chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

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post synaptic potential

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a voltage change at a receptor site on a post synaptic cell membrane

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excitatory psp

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positive voltage shift that increase the likely hood that the post synpatic neuron will fire action potentials

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Inhibitory psp

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negative voltage shirt that decreases the likelyhood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials

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Reputake

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a process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynpatic membrane

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agonist

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chemical that mimics that ation of a neurotransmitter

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antagonist

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chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

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Endorphins

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internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure adn effects

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peripheral nervous system

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made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.

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nerves

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bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system

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somatic nervous system

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made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors

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afferent nerve fibers

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axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body

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efferent nerve fibers

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axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the bdy

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autonomic nervous system

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made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands

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the sympathetic division

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branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the bodys resources for emergencies

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parasympathetic division

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branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserve bodily resources

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central nervous system

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consists of the brain and spinal cord

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cerebrospinal fluid

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nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it.

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lesioning

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involves destroying piece of the brain

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electroencephalograph

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a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attatched to the surface of the scalp

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Electrical stimulation of the brain

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involves sending a weak electrical current into a brain strucutre to stimulate it.

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transcranial magnetic stimulation

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a new technique that permits scientists to temporarly enhance or depress activity in specific area of the brain

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mid brain

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segment of the brain stem that lies between the hind brain and the forebraing

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forebrain

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largest and most complex region of the brain. incuding thalumus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum

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thalamus

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structure in forebrain through which all sensory informtion (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex

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hypothalamus

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a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs

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limbic system

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a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortial areas

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cerebral cortex

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the convoulted outer layer of the cerebrum

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cerebral hemisphere

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the right and left halves of the cerebrum

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corpus callosum

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structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres

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spilt-brain surgery

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the bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severityof epileptic seizures

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perceptual asymmetries

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left-right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual or auditory processing

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endocrine system

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consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream tht help control the bodily functioning

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hormones

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the chemical substances released by the endocrine glands

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pituitary gland

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releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands

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behavioral genetics

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an interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behvioral traits

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chromosome

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strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information

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zygote

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single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg

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Genes

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DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmissions

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homozygous condition

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the two genes in a specific pair are the same.

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heterozygous

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the two genes in a specific pair are different

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dominant gene

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the onet that is expressed when paired genes are different

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recessive gene

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the one that is masked when paired genes are different

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genotype

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refers to a persons genetic makeup

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Phenotype

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refers to the ways in which a persons genotype is manifested in observable characteristics

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polygenic traits

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characterisitcs that are influenced by more than one pair of genes

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family studies

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researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

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genetic mapping

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the process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes

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sensation

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the stimulation of sense organs

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pituitary gland

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releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands

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behavioral genetics

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an interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behvioral traits

Front 87

chromosome

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strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information

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zygote

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single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg

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Genes

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DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmissions

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homozygous condition

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the two genes in a specific pair are the same.

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heterozygous

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the two genes in a specific pair are different

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dominant gene

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the onet that is expressed when paired genes are different

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recessive gene

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the one that is masked when paired genes are different

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genotype

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refers to a persons genetic makeup

Front 95

Phenotype

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refers to the ways in which a persons genotype is manifested in observable characteristics

Front 96

polygenic traits

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characterisitcs that are influenced by more than one pair of genes

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family studies

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researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

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genetic mapping

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the process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes

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sensation

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the stimulation of sense organs

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perception

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the selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input

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psychophysics

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the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological expercience

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absolture threshold

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a specific type os sensory input is the minimum stimulus intensity that an organism can detect

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webers law

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the size of a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the size of the intial stimulus

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signal-detection theory

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proposes that the detection of stimuli involves decision processes as wel as sensory processes which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity

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subliminal perception

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the registration of sensory input without concious awareness

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sensory adaption

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a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation

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lens

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the transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina

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nearsightedness

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close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry

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farsightedness

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distant objects are seen clearly but close objects are blurry

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pupil

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the opening in the center of the iris that permits the light to pas into the rear chamber of the eye

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retina

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the neural tissure lining the inside back surface of the eye. Absorbs light, processes images, sends visual informtion to the brain

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optic disk

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a hole in the retina where optic nerve fibers exit the eye

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cones

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are specialized visual recpetors that play a key role in daylight vision and color

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Fovea

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a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones, visual activity is greatest at this spot

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rod

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specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision

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receptive field of a visual field of a visual cell

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the retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell

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lateral antagonism

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occurs when neural activity in a cell opposes activity in surrounding cells

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optic chiasm

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the point at which teh optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain

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parallel processing

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which involves simulatneously extracting different kinds of information from teh same input

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feature detectors

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neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli

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subtractive color mixing

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works by removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less light than was originally there

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additive color mixing

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works by superimposing lights, putting more light in the mixture than exists in any one light by itself

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trichromatic theory

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color vision holds that the human eye has three types of receptors with different sensitivities to different light wavelengths

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feature analysis

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the process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assmebling them into a more complex form

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bottom-up processing

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a progression from individual elements to the whole

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top-down processing

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a progression from the whole to the elements

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subjective contours

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the perception of contours where none actually exist

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Phi Phenomenon

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the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession

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distal stimuli

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stimuli that lie in the distance (that is in the world outside the body)

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proximal stimuli

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the stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors

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perceptual hypothesis

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an inferenece about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed

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binocular depth cues

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clues about distance based on differing views of the two eyes

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retinal disparity

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each eye sees a slightly different view of the same object

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convergence

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sensing the eyes converging towards eachother as they focus on closer objects

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monocular depth cues

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clues about the distance based on the image in either eye alone

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motion parallax

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involved images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates

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pictorial depth cues

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clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture

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different dpeth cues in pictures

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look on page 143!!

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perceptual constancy

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a tendency to experience stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory output

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visual illusion

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involves apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearnace of a visual stimulus and its physical reality

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Cochlea

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a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing

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basilar membrane

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which runs the length of the spiraled cochlea, holds th auditory receptors

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place theory

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perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions or places along the basilar membrane

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frequency theory

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perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates

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Volley principle

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groups of auditoy nerve fibers for neural impulses in rapid succescion, creating volleys of impulses

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auditory localization

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locating the source of a sound in space

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gustatory system

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the sensory system for taste

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olfactory system

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the sensory system for smell

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gate-control theory

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holds that incoming pain sensations must pass through a "gate" in the spinal cord that can be closed, thus blocking ascending pain signals

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kinesthetic system

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monitors the positions of the various parts of the body

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vestibular system

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responds to gravity and keeps you informed of your bodys location in space