Psychology

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shaping

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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal.

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operant chamber (Skinner Box)

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A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Use in operant conditioning research.

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law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

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Operant behavior

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Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

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respondent behavior

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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

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discrimination

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In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconitioned stimulus.

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generalization

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The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

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spontaneous recovery

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The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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extinction

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The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) comes to trigger a conditioned response.

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conditioned response (CR)

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In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS)

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-- naturally and automatically--triggers a response.

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

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behaviorism

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The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2.

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classical conditioning

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A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned response (UCS) begins to produce the response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning.

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associative learning

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Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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learning

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A relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience.

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prosocial behavior

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Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

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mirror neurons

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Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

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modeling

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The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

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observational learning

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Learning by observing others.

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extrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

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intrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effetcive.

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overjustification effect

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The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than the intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

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latent learning

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Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

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cognitive map

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A mental representation of the layout of ones environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

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punishment

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An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

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variable-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

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fixed-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

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variable-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

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fixed-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower aquisition of a response but much greater resistence to extinction that does continuous reinforcement.

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continuous reinforcement

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Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

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conditioned reinforcer

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A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, also known as a secondary reinforcer.

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primary reinforcer

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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

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reinforcer

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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.