Psychology

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Encoding

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The process of organizing and transforming incoming information so that it can be entered into memory, either to be stored or to be compared with reviously stored information

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storage

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the process of retaining information in memory

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retrieval

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the process of accessing information stored in memory

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memory store

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a set of neurons that serves to retain information over time

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sensory memory (sm)

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a memory store that holds a large amount of perceptual input for a very brief time, typically less than 1 second

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short-term memory (stm)
immediate memory

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a memory store that holds relatively little information for only a few seconds (as long as 30 seconds)

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rehersal

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the process of repeating information over and over to retain it in STM

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chunk

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a unit of information, such as a digit, letter, or word

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working memory (wm)

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the system that includes two specialized STMs (auditory loop and visuospatial sketchpad) and a central executive that operates on information in them to plan, reason, or solve a problem

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central executive

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the set of processes that operates on information in one or another of two specialized STMs; part of working memory

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long-term memory (LTM)

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a memory store that holds a huge amount of information for a long time (from hours to years)

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primacy effect

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increased memory for the first few stimuli in a set, reflecting storage of information in LTM

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Recency effect

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increased memory for the last few stimuli in a set, reflecting storage of information in STM

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code

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a type of mental representation, an internal "re-presentation" (such as in words or images) of the stimulus or event

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consolidation

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the process of converting information stored dynamically in LTM into a structural change in the brain

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depth of processing

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the number and complexity of the operations involved in processing information, expressed in a continuum from shallow to deep

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transfer appropriate processing

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processing used to retrieve material that is the same type as was used when the material was originally studied, which improves memory retrieval

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breadth of processing

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processing that organizes and integrates information into previously stored information, often by making associations

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elaborative encoding

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encoding that involves great breath of processing

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intentional learning

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learning that occurs as a result of trying to learn

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incidental learning

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learning that occurs without intention

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flashbulb memory

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an unusually uvid and detailed memory of a dramatic event

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modality-specific memory stores

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memory stores that retian input from a single sense, such as vision or audition, or from a specific processing system, such as language

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semantic memories

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memories of the meanings of words, concepts, and general facts about the world

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episodic memories

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memories of events that are associated with a particular context: a time, place and circumstance

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explicit(declarative) memories

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memories that can be retrieved at will and represented in STM; verbal and visual memories are explicit if they can be called to mind as words or images

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implicit (nondeclarative) memories

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memories that cannot be voluntarily caleld to mind, but nevertheless influence behavior or thinking

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habit

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a well-learned response that is carried out automatically (without conscious thought) when the appropriate stimulus is present

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controlled processing

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processing that requries paying attention to each step of an action and using working memory (wm) to coordinate the steps

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automatic processing

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processing that allows you to carry out a sequence of steps without having to pay attention to each one or to the relations between the steps

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priming

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the result of having just performed a task that facilitates repeating the same or an associated task

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repetition priming

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priming that makes the same information more easily accessed in the future

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recall

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the act of intentionally bringing explicit information to awareness, which requires transferring the information from LTM to STM

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recognition

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the act of encoding an input and matching it to a stored representation

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cues

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stimuli that trigger or enhance remembering; reminders

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state-dependent retrieval

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recall that is better if it occurs in the smae psychological state that was present when the information was first encoded

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false memories

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memories of events or stituations that did not, in fact, occur

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reality monitoring

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an ongoing awareness of the perceptual and other properties that distinguish real from imagined stimuli

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forgetting curve

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a graphic representation of the rate at which information is forgotten over time: recent events are recalled better than more distant ones, but most forgetting occurs soon after learning

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encoding failure

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a failure to process to-be-remembered information well enough to begin consoidation

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decay

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the fading away of memories with time because the relevant connections between neurons are lost

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interference

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the disruption of the ability to remember one piece of information by the presence of other information

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retroactive interference

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interference that occurs when new learning imairs memory for something learned earlier

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proactive interference

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interference that occurs when previous knowledge makes it diffilcult to learn something new

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amnesia

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a loss of memory over an enire time span, resulting from brain damage caused by accident, infection, or stroke

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retrograde amnesia

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amnesia that disrupts previous memories

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anterograde amnesia

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amnesia that leaves consolidated memories intact but prevents new learning

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repressed memories

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real memories that have been pushed out of consciousness because they are emotionally threatening

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mnemonic devices

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strategies the improve memory, typically bu susing effective organization and integration