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255 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology
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the science of metal processes and behavior
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mental processes
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what the brain does when a person stores, recalls, or uses information or has specific feelings
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behavior
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the outwardly observable acts of an individual
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LEVEL OF THE BRAIN
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events that involve the stucture and prperties of the organ iself, braincells and their connections the chemical soup in which they exist, and the genes
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level of the person
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events that involve the nature of the belief, desires, and feelings, the content of the mind
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level of the group
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events that involve relationships between people
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structuralism
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rules and circumstances that combine to form structures: what mental processes and how they operate - introspection
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introspection
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process of looking within
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functionalism
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how the mind functions in the world - natural selection: why the brain thinks *level of the group
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key structuralists
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wilhelm wundt
edward titchener maragret washburn |
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key functionalists
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william james
influenced by charles darwin |
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gestalt psychology
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whole is greater than the sum of its parts
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key gestalt psychologists
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max weirtheimer
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unconscious
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outside conscious awareness and not able to be brought to consciousness at will
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psychodynamic theory
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how thoughts and feelings affect behavior; refers to the continual push and pull interaction among conscious and unconscious forces *sigmund freud
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behaviorism
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how a specific stimulus, object, person, or event evokes a specific response
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key behaviorialists
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John Watson
BF Skinner |
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humanistic psychology
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assumes that people have positive values, free will, and deep inner creativity - leads to personal growth. Therapist as a mirror
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key humanists
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Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow |
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cognitive psychology
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the approach in psychology that attempts to characterize how information is stored and operated on internally
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cognitive neuroscience
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the blending of cognitive psychology and neuroscience that aims to specify how the brain stores and processes information
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evolutionary psychology
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the approach in psychology that assumes that certain cognitive strategies and goals are so important that natural selection has built them into our brains
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clinical psychologist
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the type of psychologist who provides psychotherapy and is trained to administer and interpret psychological tests
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psychotherapy
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the process of helping clients learn to change so they can cope with troublesome thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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counseling psychologists
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the type of psychologist who is trained to help people with issues that naturally arise during the course of life
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psychiatrist
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a physician who focuses on mental disorders, can prescribe drugs; not trained to research and intrepret results
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social worker
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a mental health professional who uses psychotherapy to help families, individuals, and teaches clients to use the social services in their communities
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psychiatric nurse
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a nurse with a master's degree and clinical specialization, works with MD
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Academic psychologist
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a type of psychologist who focuses on teaching and conducting research
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applied psychologist
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the type of psychologist who studies how to imporve products and procedures and cunducts research to help solve specific practial problems
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scientific method
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specify a problem, systematically observing events, forming a hypothesis, using evidence to form a theory, testing the theory
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data
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objective observations
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replication
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collecting the smae observations or measurements and finding the same results as were found previously
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variable
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an aspect of a situation that can vary/change specifically a characteristic of a substance that is measurable
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hypothesis
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a tentative idea that might explain a set of observations
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operational definition
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a definition of a variable that specifies how it is measured or manipulated
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theory
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an interlocking set of principles that explain a set of observations
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prediction
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an expectation about specific events that should occur in particular circumstances if the theory or hypothesis is correct
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case study
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a scientific that focuses on a single instance of a situation, examining it in detail
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survey
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a set of questions, typically about beliefs, attitudes, preferences or activites
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correlation coefficient
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an index of how closely interrelated two sets of meausred variables are related (+/- 1) The higher the correlation, the better we can predict the value of one type of measurement when given the other
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effect
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the difference in the dependent variable that is due to the changes in the independent variable
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confound
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the independent variable that varies along with the ones of interest and could be the actual basis for what you are measuring
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meta analysis
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a statistical technique that allows researchers to combine results from different studies- can determine whether there is a relationship among variables that transcends any one study
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sample
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a group that is drawn from a larger population and measured or observed
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population
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the entire set of relevant people or animals
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reliability
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same results when repeated
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validity
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measure what it's supposed to measure
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bias
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beliefs, expectations effect how a researcher conducts a study
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experimenter expectancy effects
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effects that occur when an investigator's expectations lead him/her to treat participants in a way that encourages them to prouce the expected results
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double-blind design
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the participant is unaware of the predictions of the study and the experimentor is blind to the condition assigned to the participant
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pseudopsychology
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theories or statements that are superstition or unsupported opinion pretending to be science
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informed consent
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the requirement that a potential paritcipant in a study be told what he/she will be asked to do and advised of possible risks and benefits before taking place
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debriefing
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and interview after a study to enure that the participant has no negative reactions as a result of participation and understands why the study was conducted
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neuron
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basic unit of the nervous system
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sensory neuron
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a neuron that responds to input from sense organs
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motor neuron
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a neroun that sends signals to muscles to control movement
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interneuron
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a neuron that is connected to other neurons
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brain circuit
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a set of neurons that affect one another
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cell body
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the central part of a neuron, controls the cell's metabolic activities and integrates inputs
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axon
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conducts the nerve impulse away from the cell body
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dendrites
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receive information from other neurons or from the environment
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terminal buttons
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release chemicals into the space between neurons when thier neuron has been triggered
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resting potential
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the negative change in charge that moves down the axon
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all-or-none law
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neuron fires or not; action potential or not
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myelin
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a fatty substance that helps impulse travel down the axon more efficiently
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synapse
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the place where an axon of one neuron can send signals to the membrane of another neuron
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neurotransmitter
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a chemical that carries a signal from the terminal button on one neuron to the dendrite or cell body of another neuron
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neuromodulator
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a chemical that alters the effect of a neurotransmitter
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endogenous cannabinoids
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neuromodulators released by the receiving neuron that then influence the acivity of the sending neuron
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receptor
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a site on a dendrite or cell body where a messenger molecule attaches itself like a lock that is opened by one key
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reuptake
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the process by which surplus neurotransmitter is reabsorbed back into the sending neuron so that the neuron can effectively fire again
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agonist
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a chiemical that mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter by activating a type of receptor
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SSRI
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selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor
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SSRI-def
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a chemical that blocks the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin
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antagonist
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a chemical that interferes with the effect of a neurotransmitter (blocks a receptor)
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glial cell
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surrounds the neuron, influences communication, 'care and feeding' of the neuron
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acetylcholine
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transmitter at the neuromuscular junction (muscle contraction), memory, used in ANS
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Dopamine
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motivation, reward, movement, thought, learning
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noradrenalin, norephinephrine
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dreaming, attention
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serotonin
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primary inhibitory neurotransmitter regulating mood, sleep, stress
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GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
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inhibits sending neuron
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endogenous cannabinoids
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memory, attention, emotion, movement control, appetite
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PNS
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the ANS and sensory somatic nervous system
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ANS
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controls the smooth muscles in the body, some glandular functions, many of the body's self-regulating activities, such as digesting and circulating
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sympathetic nervous system
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fight or flight
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parasympathetic system
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resting phase, counteracts sympathetic
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SSNS (sensory-somatic)
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neurons in the sensory organs that convey info to the brain, also trigger muscles and glands
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skeletal system
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consists of nerves taht are attached to striated muscles
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spinal cord
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the flixible rope of nerves that runs inside the bakcbone, or spinal column
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CNS
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spinal cord and the brain
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reflex
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an automatic response to an event
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meninges
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membranes that cover the brain
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cerebral hemisphere
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left or right half-brain
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lobes
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occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal
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corpus callosum
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the large band of nerve fibers that connects the two halves of the brain
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cerebral cortex
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the convoluted pinkish-grey outer layer of the brain, where most mental processes take place
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sulcus
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crease
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gyrus
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bulge
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occipital
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vision
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temporal
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visual memory and hearing
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parietal
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registering spatial location, attention, and motor control
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somatosensory strip
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located immediately located behind the central sulcus, registers sensation, and is organized by body part
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frontal
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planning, memory, motor control, and reasoning
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motor strip
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immediatly in front of the central sulcus, controls fine movements - primary motor cortex
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forebrain
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cortex, thalamus, limbic system, and basal ganglia
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thalamus
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receives inputs from sensory and motor systems and plays a crucial role in attention - switching center
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hypothalamus
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a brain structure that sits under the thalamus and plays a central role in controlling eating and drinking and in regulating the body's temp, BP, and heart rate
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hippocampus
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key role in allowing new information to be sorted in the brain's memory banks
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amygdala
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fear, anger, and other emotions
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limbic system
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hippocampus, amygdala, and other areas, fighting/fleeing, feeding, and sex
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basal ganglia
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planning and producing movement
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brainstem
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set of neural structures at base of the brain, including pons and medulla
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medulla
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lowest part of the brainstem, breathing, swallowing, and blood circulation
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reticular formation
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small structures at the base of the brainstem, 'ascending' keeps person awake/alert, 'decending' is ANS rxns
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pons
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bridge between the brainstem and the cerebellum that plays a role in functions ranging from sleep to control of the facial muscles
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cerebellum
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a large structure at the base of the brain that is concerned in part with physical coordination, estimating time and paying attention
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hindbrain
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the midulla, pons,cerebellum, and pars of the reticular formation
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midbrain
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brainstem structures that lie between forebrain and hindbrain including parts of the reticular formation
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hormone
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a chemical that is produced by a gland and can act as a neuromodulator
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cortisol
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a hormone produced by the outer layer of the adrenal glands that helps the body cope with stress by breaking down and converting protein and fat to sugar
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pituitary gland
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the 'master gland' that regulates other glands but it iself is controlled by the brain, primary by hypothalamus
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hypotyalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)
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the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands, which work together to fight off infection
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lesion
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a region of impared tissue
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stroke
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blockage where blood cannot reach a portion of the brain; that part dies
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electroencephalograph
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a machine that records electrical currenct produced by the brain
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elecroencephalogram
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a recording from the scalp of electrical activity in the brain over time, which produces a tracing of pulses at different frequencies
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magnetoencephalography
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a technique fro assessing brain activity that relies on recording magnetic waves from outside of the head
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microelectrode
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a tiny probe inserted into the brain to record the electical activity of induvidual neurons
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CT/CAT scan
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3D xrays to image the brain
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MRI
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localizes activity via hemoglobin
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fMRI
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detects the amount of O2 while a task is performed
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Transcrainial magnetic simulation (TMS)
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a technique in which the brain is stimulated from outsied by putting a wire coil on a person's head and delivering a magnetic pulse
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SSRI
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prozac, zoloft, and paxil block reuptake of serotonin
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broca's area vs. wernicke's area
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speech production vs speech comprehension
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limbic system
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hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala, hippocampus
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sensation
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the awareness of properties of an object ore event that occurs when a type of receptor is stimulated
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perception
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the act of organizeing and interpreting sensory input ans signaling a particular object or event
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psychophysics
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the study of the relation between physical events and the corresponding experience of those evens
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threshold
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the point where stimulation is strong enough to be noticed
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absolute threshold
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the smalles amound of a stimulus needed in order to detect that the stimulus is present
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JND
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the size of the difference in a stimulus property needed fro the observer to notice that a change has occurred
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weber's law
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the rule that a constant percentage of a magnitude change is necessary to detect a difference
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signal detection theory
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a theory explaining why people detect signals independently of bias; the theory is based on the idea tha signals are always embedded in noise and thus the challenge is to distinguish signal from noise
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sensitivity
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in signal detection theory, the threshold level for distinguishing between a stimulus and noise; the lower the threshold, the greater the sensitivity
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bias
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a person's willingness to report noticing a stimulus
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transduction
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the process whereby physical energy is converted by as sensory neuron into neural impulses
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pupil
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the opening in the eye through which light passes
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iris
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the circular muscle that adjusts the size of the pupil
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cornea
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the transparent covering over the eye, which serves partly to focus the light onto the back of the eye
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accommodation
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occurs when muscles adjust the shape of the lens so that it focuses light on the retina from objects at different distances
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retina
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a sheet of tissue at the back of the eye containing cells athat convert light to neural impulses
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fovea
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the small, central region of the retina with the hightest density of cones and with the highest resolution
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rods
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rod shaped retal cells that are very sensitive to light but register only shades of gray
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cones
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cone shaped retial cells that respond most stronly to one of three wavelengths of light; the combined outputs from cones that are most sensitive to different wavelengths play a key role in producing color vision
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otic nerve
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the large bundle of verve fibers carrying impules from the retina into the brain
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dark adaptation
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the process whereby exposure to darkness causes the eyes to become more sensitive, allowing for better vision in the dar
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trichomoatic theory of color vision
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the theory that color vision arises from the combination of neural impulses from three different kinds of sensors, each of which responds maximally to a different wavelenght
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opponant process theory of color vision
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the theory that if a color is present, it causes cells that register it to inhibit the perception of the complemantry color
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afterimage
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the image left behind by a previous perception
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opponent cells
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cells that pit the colors in a pair , most notably blue/yellow, red/green against eachother
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color blindness
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an inablility to perceive certain hues (aquired or inherited)
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figure
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in perception, a set of characteristics that corresponds to an object
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ground
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in perception, the background, which must be distinguished in order to pick out figures
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gestalt laws of organization
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a set of rules describing the circustances, such as proximity, good continuation, similiarity, closure, and good form, under which marks will be grouped into perceptual units
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perceptual constancy
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the perception of characteristics that occurs when an object or quality looks the same even though the sensory info striking the eyes changes
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size constancy
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seeing an object as being the sam size when viewed at different distances
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shape constancy
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seeing objects as having the same shape even when the image on the retina changes
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color constancy
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seeing objects as having the same color in different viewing situations
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binocular clues
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cues to the distance of an object that arise from both eyes working together
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convergence
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the degree to which the eyes are crossed when a person fixates on an object
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retinal disparity (binocular disparity)
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the difference between the images striking the retinas of the two eyes
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monocular static cues
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information that specifies the distance of an object that can be picked up with one eye with out movement of the object or eye
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texture gradient
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progressive change in texture that signals distance
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motion cues
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information that specifies the distance of an object on the basis of its movement
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bottom-up processing
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processing that is initiated by stimulus input
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top-down processing
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processing that is guided by knowledge, expectation, or belief
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perceptual set
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the sum of your assumptions and belifs taht lead you to expect to perceive certain objects or charateristics in particular contexts
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attention
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the act of focusing on particular information, which allows it to be processed more fully than what is not attened to
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selective attention
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the process of picking out a particular quality, object, or even for relatively detailed analysis
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pop-out
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phenomenon that occurs when a stimulus is sufficiently different from the ones around it that it is immediately evident
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repetition blindness
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the inablilty to see the second occurrence of a stimulus that appears twice in succession
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attention blink
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a rebound period in which a person cannot pay attention to one thing after having just paid attention to another
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pitch
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how high/low a sound seems; higher frequencies of pressure waves produce the experience of higher pitches
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loudness
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the strength of a sound; pressure waves with greater amplitude produce the experience of louder sound
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decibel
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a measure of loudness on a base-10 logarithmic sace, the threshold for hearing is set at 0dB
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hair cells
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the cells with stiff hearis along the BM of the inner ear, that when moved, produce nerve impulses that are sent to the brain; these cells are the auditory equivalent of rods and cones
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frequency theory
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the theory that higher frequencies produce higher rates of neural firing
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place theory
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the theory that different frequecies activated different places along the BM
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conduction deafness
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casued by physical impairment of the external or middle ear
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speech-segmentation problem
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the problem of oragnizing a continuous stream of speech into separate parts taht correspond to induvidual words
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categorical perception
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identifying sounds as belonging to distinct categories that correspond to the basic untis of speech
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cocktail party phenomenon
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the effect of not bein aware of other people's conversations until your name is mentioned, and then suddenly hearing it
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dichotic listening
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a procedure in which participants hear stimuli presented separately to the two ears and are instructed to listen only to sounds presented in one ear
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chemical senses
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taste and smell, rely on sensing of specific chemicals
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pheromones
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chemicals that function like hormones but are released ouseide the body in urine and sweat
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taste buds
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microscopic structures on the bumps on the tongue surface at the back of the throat, and inside the cheeks; different types of taste buds are sensitive to sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and glutamate
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somasthetic senses
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senses that have to do with perceiving the body and its position in space; kinesthetic sense, vestibular sense, touch, temperature sensitivity, pain sense, and possibly magnetic sense
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kinesthetic sense
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the sense that registers the movement and position of the limbs
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vestibular sense
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the sense that provides information about the body's orientation relative to gravity
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paradoxical cold
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the sensation of cold that occurs when certain nerves in the skin are stimulated by something hot
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double pain
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the sensation that occurs when an injury first causes a sharp pain, and later a dull pina; the two kinds of pain arise from different fibers sending teir messages at different speeds
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endorphins
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painkiling chemicals produced naturally in the brain
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placebo
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a medically inactive substance that is presented as though it has medicinal effects
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gate control (of pain)
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the top-down inhibion of interneurons that regulate the input of pain signals to he brain
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extrasensory perception (ESP)
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the ability to perceive and know things without using the ordinary senses
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learning
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a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience
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habituation
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the learning taht occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus decreases an organism's reponsiveness to the stimulus
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classical conditioning
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a type of learning that occurs when a neurtral stimulus becomes paried with a stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior and is sufficient ot produce that behavior
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Unconditioned stimulus
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a stimulus that elicits an automatic response without requiring prior learning
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unconditioned response
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the reflexive response elicited by a particular stimulus
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conditioned stimulus
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an orginally neurtral stimulus that acqires significance through pairings with an unconditioned stimulus
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conditioned response
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a response that depends or is conditional on pairings of the conditioned stimulus, once learned, the conditioned reponse occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone
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acquisition
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in classical conditioning, the initial learning of the conditioned response
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avoidance learning
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in classical conditioning, learing that occurs when a CS is paired with and unpleasant US that leads the organism to try to avoid the CS
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conditioned emotional response (CER)
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an emotional response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus
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phobia
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an irrational fear of a specific object or situation
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biological preparedness
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a built-in readiness for certain CS to elicit particular CR, so less training is necessary to produce learning
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contrapreparedness
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a built-in disinclination for certain conditioned stimuli to elicit particular CR
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extinction
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in classical conditioning, the process by which a CR comes to be eliminated through repeated rpresentations of the CS without the presence of the US
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spontaneous recovery
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in classical conditioning, the event that ocurs when the CS again elicits the CR after extinction has occurred
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stimulus generalization
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a tendency for the CR to be elicited by neurtal stimuli that are like, but not identical to, the CS; in other words, the response generalizes to similiar stimuli
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stimulus discrimination
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the ability to distinguish among stimuli similiar to the CS and to repond only to the actual CS
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food (taste) aversion
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a classically conditioned avoidance of a certain food or taste
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operant conditioning
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the process by which a behavior becomes assiciated with its consequences
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law of effect
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actions that subsequently lead to a satisfying state of affairs are more likely to be repeated
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reinforcement
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the process by which consequences lead to an increase in the likelihood that the response will occur again
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response contingency
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the relationship that occurs when a consequence is dependent on the organism's emitting the desired behavior
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reinforcer
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an object or even that comes after a response and that changes the likelihood of its recurrence
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positive reinforcement
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occurs when a desired reinforcer is presented after a behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior
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negative reinforcement
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occurs when an unpelasant event or circumstnace that follows a behavior is removed, thereby increasing the recurrence of the behavior
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positive punishment
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ocurs when a behavior leads to an undesired consequence, thereby decreaisng the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior
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negative punishment
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occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of a pleasant event or circumstnace thereby decreasing the likelihood of a recurrence of the behavior
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primary reinforcer
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an event or object, such as food, water, or relief from pain, that is inherently reinforcing
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secondary reinforcer
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and event or an object, such as attention, priase, money, a good grade, or a promotion, that is reinforcing but that does not inherently satisfy a physical need
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behavior modification
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a technique that brings about therapeutic change in behavior though the use of secondary reinforcers
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generalization
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the ability to emit a learned behavior in response ot a similar stimulus
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discrimination
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the ability to engage in a learned behavior in response to a particular stimulus but not in response to a similiar one
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discriminative stimulus
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the ue that tells the organism whether a specific resonse will lead to the expected reinforcement
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extinction
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in operant conditioning, the fading out of a response following an initial bust of that behavior after the withdrawal of reinforcement
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spontaneous recovery
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in operant conditioning, the process by which an old response reappears if there is a period of time after extinction
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shaping
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the gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behavior that gets closer to the desired behavior
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successive approximations
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the series of smaller behaviors involved in shaping a complex behavior
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continuous reinforcement
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reinforcement given for each desired resonse
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partial reinforcement
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reinforcement given only intermittently
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interval schedule
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partial reinforcement schedle based on time
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ratio schedule
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partial reinforcement schedule based on a specified number of emitted reponses
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fixed interval schedule
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reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given for a response emitted after a fixed interal of time
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variable interval schedule
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reinfocement schedule in which reinforcemetn is given for a resonse emitted after a variable interval of time
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fixed ratio schedule
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reinforecement eschedule in which reinforcemtn is given after a fixed number of responses
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variable ratio schedule
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reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses
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cognitive learning
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the aquisition of information that often is not immendiatly acted upon but is stored for later use
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latent learning
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learning that occurs without behavioral signs
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insight learning
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learning that occurs when a person or animal suddenly grasps what something means and incorporates taht new knowlege into old knowledge
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observational learning
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learning that occurs through watching others, not through reinforcement
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