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449 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Wundt
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Founder of psychology, number one, introspection
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Introspection
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describe stimuli, quality, intensity
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Structuralism
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Titchner, clearness also, structure of consciousness
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Functionalism
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James, consciousness guides
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Gestalt
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Wertheimer, total experience
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Psychoanalysis
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Freud, unconscious
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Behaviorism
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Watson
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Humanist Approach
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Maslow, Rogers, individual choice and free will
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Psychodynamic Approach
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unconscious
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Biological Approach
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biological processes
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Evolutionary Approach
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Natural selection
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Behavior Approach
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conditioning, behavior
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Cognitive Approach
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how we interpret events
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Social-Cultural Approach
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how things vary between cultures
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Eclectic Approach
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no one approach can explain all
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Applied Research
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clear, practical applications
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Basic Research
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not intended to have real applications
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Valid
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accurate
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Reliable
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consistent
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Dependent Variable
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measure
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Independent Variable
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manipulate
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Operational Definition
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exact definitions
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Assignment
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process of putting subject in groups
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Random assignment
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everyone has equal chance
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Subject-relevant Confounding Variable
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subject confounds
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Stimuli-relevant Confounding Variable
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stimuli may confound, need equal environment
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Experimenter Bias
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unconscious tendency to treat members differently
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Double-blind
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both are blind
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Representative sample
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must reflect the characteristics
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Nonresponse error
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not everyone will agree to participate
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Survey
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cheap, large data, but sample errors
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Correlational studies
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correlations, not causation
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Naturalistic Observation
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stalking
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Case Study
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focusing on one person
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Positively skewed
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extreme high score
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Negatively skewed
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extreme low score
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Z score
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measure difference in standard deviations
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Correlation Coefficient
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+1 is positive, -1 is negative, strong correlations
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P value
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smaller, more significant, .05 is statistically significant
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Afferent neurons
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from senses to brain
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Interneurons
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between afferent and efferent
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Efferent neurons
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from brain to body
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Somatic Nervous System
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voluntary control
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CAT Scan
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like an x-ray, 3d picture
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PET Scan
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sees what areas are active during certain tasks
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fMRI
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combines MRI and PET scans
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Medulla
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heart, blood, breathe
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Pons
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facial expression
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Cerebellum
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fine muscle
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Midbrain
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simple movements with sensory information
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Thalamus
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receives sensory signals and sends them
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Hypothalamus
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metabolic functions
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Amgydala and Hippocampus
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memory and emotion
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Brain lateralization
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functions of each hemisphere, split brain
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Frontal Lobe
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abstract though and emotional control
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Broca’s Area
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producing speech
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Wernicke’s Area
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interpret speech
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Parietal Lobe
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sensory cortex, signals
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Occipital Lobe
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back, eyes
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Temporal Lobes
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ears, sound
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Brain Plasticity
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Brain can adapt to perform other functions
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Adrenal Glands
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adrenaline, fight or flight
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Transduction
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signals into neural impulses
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Fovea
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highest concentration of cones
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Ganglion cells
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cells in the eye that fire
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Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
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Region in thalamus that does sight
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Optic Chiasm
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spot where nerves cross
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Blind spot
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where optic nerve leaves retina, no rod or cones
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Feature detectors
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cells that detect features
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Trichromatic Theory
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3 types of cones, blue, red, green
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Opponent-Process Theory
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red/green, blue/yellow, black/white, one stimulate other inhibited
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Oval window
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membrane connected to hammer anvil stirrup
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Cochlea
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fluid filled
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Organ of Corti
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has hairs that move
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Place Theory
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Hairs respond to different sound frequencies based on where they are
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Frequency Theory
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Lower tones sensed by the rate cells are fired
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Conduction deafness
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something wrong in system of conducting
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Nerve deafness
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hair cells are damaged
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Gate-control Theory
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when higher pain messenger activated, gate opens
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Papillae
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stuff on tongues
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Olfactory bulb
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receptor cells in nose linked
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Olfactory receptor cells
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receive stuff
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Vestibular sense
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how body is oriented
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Kinesthetic sense
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position of body parts
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Absolute Threshold
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smallest amount we can detect
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Subliminal
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under absolute threshold
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Difference threshold
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defines change, jnd, smallest amount of change needed to detect
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Signal Detection Theory
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perception thing
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Response criteria
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willingness to respond to a stimulus
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False positive
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we think something is there when it isn’t
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False negative
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we don’t see something that is there
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Top-down Processing
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fill in gaps with what we know
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Perceptual Set
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predisposition to perceiving something in certain way
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Backmasking
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hidden messages in songs backwards
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Bottom-up Processing
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feature analysis, use features of object to build complete perception
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Figure-Ground
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easy stuff
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Proximity
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close things are together
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Similarity
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similar things are together
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Continuity
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continuous things are together
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Closure
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things that make up a recognizable image are together
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Size constancy
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Objects closer are bigger but we’re smart
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Shape constancy
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Objects from different angles are different but we’re smart
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Brightness constancy
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Objects are constant color even when light changes
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Linear Perspective
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converging things
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Relative Size Cue
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far things are small
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Interposition Cue
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Objects blocking are closer
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Texture Gradient
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Further things are blurrier
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Shadowing
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shading
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Binocular Disparity
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eye sees different angle, more disparity as closer
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Convergence
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eyes move together as it gets closer
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Dualism
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humans are thought and matter
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Monism
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same substance
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Mere-exposure effect
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we prefer stimuli we’ve seen over new ones
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Priming
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Respond faster to things we know
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Blind sight
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blind people can see
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Nonconscious
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body processes we don’t know
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Preconscious
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info we aren’t thinking about
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Sleep Onset
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period when we are falling asleep
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Paradoxical Sleep
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REM sleep, brain waves are as we’re awake
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Manifest content
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literal content of dreams
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Latent content
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unconscious meaning of manifest content
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Activation-synthesis Theory
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dreams are biological phenomena
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Information-processing theory of dreaming
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between Freud and activation-synthesis, stress increases number and intensity of dream
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Posthypnotic Amnesia
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forget things when hypnotized
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Posthypnotic Suggestion
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suggesting thing while hypnotized
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Role theory
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not alternate state of consciousness, being hypnotized
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Hypnotic Suggestibility
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easily hypnotized than others
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State theory
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Altered state hypnosis
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Dissociation Theory
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Hypnosis causes us to divide consciousness voluntarily
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Blood-brain barrier
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brain has thicker walls of bloodstream
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Agonist
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mimic neurotransmitter
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Antagonist
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Block neurotransmitter
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Unconditioned Stimulus
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original stimulus that elicits a response, eg meat
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Unconditioned Response
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response that is unconditioned, eg drool
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Conditioned Response
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response that is conditioned, eg drool
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Conditioned Stimulus
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stimulus conditioned, eg bell
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Acquisition
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learning by CC
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Delayed conditioning
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Acquisition fastest if bell is rung and food presented while still ringing
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Trace conditioning
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CS, break, US
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Simultaneous conditioning
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same time CS and US
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Backward conditioning
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US then CS, useless
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Extinction
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loss of learning
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Spontaneous Recovery
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Spontaneously Recovers
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Generalization
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respond to similar CSs
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Discriminate
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Tell difference
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Aversive conditioning
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hating something
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Second order conditioning/higher-order conditioning
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Uses CS as a US for a new thing
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Learned Taste Aversions
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hating tastes
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Operant conditioning
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consequences of behavior
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Law of effect
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if consequences are good, S-R connection will be strengthened
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Reinforcer
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makes behavior more likely
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Positive reinforcement
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adding good
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Negative reinforcement
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removing bad
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Punishment
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makes behavior less likely
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Positive punishment
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adding bad
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Negative punishment
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removing good
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Escape learning
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terminate aversive stimulus
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Avoidance learning
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avoid unpleasant stimulus
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Shaping
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reinforce steps used to reach behavior
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Chaining
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responses consecutively
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Primary reinforcers
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rewarding
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Secondary reinforcers
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things we learned to like
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Generalized Reinforcer
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money
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Token economy
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when you do something good, you get a token which you can trade for any other reinforce
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Premack principle
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whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce activity that is not preferred
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Continuous Reinforcement
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keep doing it each time
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Partial reinforcement effect
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behavior more resistant to extinction if not reinforced continuously
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Fixed-ratio
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every set number
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Variable Ratio
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number varies
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Fixed interval
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every set time
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Variable interval
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time varies
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Instinctive drift
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tendency to forego rewards to pursue typical behavior patterns
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Contiguity model
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more times two things are paired, greater learning
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Contingency model
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Presence of one predicts presence of other
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Observational Learning
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watching families of others, observation and imitation
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Latent learning
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obvious only when reinforcement is given for demonstrating it
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Abstract learning
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understanding concepts
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Insight Learning
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suddenly realizing how to do something
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Three-box model
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sensory, short term, long term
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Sensory memory
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split second holding of memory
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Echoic memory
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equally perfect split second memory for sounds
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Iconic memory
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equally perfect split second memory for pics
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Short term memory
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Visual codes, acoustic codes, semantic codes
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Selective attention
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dividing attention
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Rehearse
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repeating to memorize
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Episodic Memory
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specific events
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Semantic memory
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knowledge of world
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Procedural memory
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how to do things
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Explicit Memory
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what we think of first
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Implicit Memory
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unintentional memories
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Eidetic memory
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photographic memory
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Deeply Processed
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studying deeply
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Shallowly Processed
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shallowly processed memory
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Recognition
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matching current event with something in memory
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Recall
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retrieving memory with external cue
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Primacy effect
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beginning of list we remember
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Recency effect
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we remember end of list
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Serial position effect
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we remember things in beginning and end
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Tip of the tongue phenomenon
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we know something but don’t say it
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Semantic network theory
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brain forms new memories by connecting them with things already in memory
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Flashbulb memories
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importance of event encodes context surrounding it, but inaccurate
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Mood-congruent memory
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mood matches mood
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State-dependent memory
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states of consciousness
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Constructed memory
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fake memories
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Interference
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new things interfere
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Retroactive interference
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new interferes with old
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Proactive interference
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old interferes with new
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Anterograde Amnesia
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can’t remember new things
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Long-term potentiation
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neurons can strengthen connections between each other
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Phonemes
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smallest units of sound
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Morphemes
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smallest unit of meaningful sound
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Language Acquisition
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babbling stage
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Telegraphic speech
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Combine words into commands
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Overgeneralization
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grammar is wrong
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Language Acquisition Device
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ability to learn language rapidly as children
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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
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theory that language we use might control thinking
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Concepts
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concepts
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Prototypes
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most typical concept
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Algorithm
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Rule that guarantees right solution by some formula
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Heuristics
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rule of thumb to make judgment
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Availability Heuristic
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Based on examples of similar situations
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Representative Heuristic
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Based on how similar aspect is to prototypes
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Belief bias
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illogical conclusions in order to confirm preexisting beliefs
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Belief perseverance
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tendency to maintain belief after evidence is contradicted
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Rigidity
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tendency to fall into established thought patterns
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Functional fixedness
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inability to see new use for object
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Confirmation Bias
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look for evidence that confirms our beliefs
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Framing
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way problem is presented
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Convergent thinking
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one solution
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Divergent thinking
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many solutions
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Lateral hypothalamus
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destruction of it destroys hunger
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Ventralmedial
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causes it to stop eating when stimulated
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Set-point theory
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hypothalamus wants to maintain certain body weight
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Garcia effect
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Nausea paired with food
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High Achievement Motivation
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challenge yourself
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Extrinsic motivators
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rewards we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves
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Intrinsic motivators
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internal rewards
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Theory X
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Employees will work if benefited or punished
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Theory Y
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employees naturally motivated to do good work, should encourage this
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James-Lange
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emotion because of biology
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Cannon-Bard
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Biological change and cognitive awareness happen at same time
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Two-Factory Theory
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Schacter, people who are already physiologically aroused experience more intense emotions, depends on interaction between biology and cognition
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General adaptation syndrome
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general response to stress
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Alarm reaction
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first step, heart pumps etc.
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Resistance
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we’re ready to face this stress
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Exhaustion
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returns to normal, more vulnerable
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Cross-sectional
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different ages
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Longitudinal
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long period of time
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Teratogen
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crap that can screw us up
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Rooting reflex
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baby turns head to side where touched and wants to put it in mouth
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Sucking reflex
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object in mouth, will suck
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Grasping reflex
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object in hand, will grasp
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Moro reflex
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started, flings out limbs, then retracts to make small
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Babinski reflex
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foot stroked, will spread toes
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Harlow theory
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monkeys, attachment, preferred the soft mother
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Ainsworth theory
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strange situations of babies
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Secure attachment
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explore new environment with parents and return to parents
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Avoidant Attachment
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resist parents
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Anxious/ambivalent attachments
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stress when leave but no comfort
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Authoritarian
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strict
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Permissive
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pussy
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Authoritative
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reasonable
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Trust vs. mistrust
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babies first, trust or no?
are you my mommy? trust vs mistrust. |
None
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Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
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Toddlers, control self, no!
i peed my pants, i'm ashamed. |
None
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Initiative vs. guilt
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no! to why?, children
i lied, i'm guilty. |
None
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Industry vs. inferiority
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formal education, can we do as well?
preteen, i'm flat, i am inferior |
None
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Identity vs. role confusion
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adolescence, who am I?
cheerleader or jock? |
None
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Intimacy vs. isolation
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young adults, balance sex and work
sex? |
None
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Generativity vs. stagnation
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old age, want something to last after we die
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Integrity vs. despair
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gonna die soon, worthwhile life?
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Assimilation
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incorporate experiences into existing schema
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Sensorimotor stage
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babies experience world through senses, object permanence
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Preoperational stage
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symbols used, language
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Concrete Operational
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conservation, more logically about relationships
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Formal operational
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adult reasoning, abstract thought
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Metacognition
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thinking about the way we think
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Information-processing model
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Abilities to interpret, memorize and perceive develop as we age than in distinct stages
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Preconventional
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avoid punishment
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Conventional
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Look through others’ eyes
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Postconventional
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moral reasoning, universal ethics principles, justice
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Carol Gilligan
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Kohlberg based it on boys, girls care about situational factors
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Biopsychological theory of gender
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biological differences make gender differences, differences exist, women have bigger corpus callosums
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Psychodynamic theory of gender
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Competition
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Social-cognitive theory of gender
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Boys are encouraged to be rougher than girls, gender schemas
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Type A
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time pressure, easily angered people
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Type B
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relaxed, easy going
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Stage theories
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development is discontinuous
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Identification
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emulate and attaches self to individual who you believe threatens you
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Fixation
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undergratified or being overgratified
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Anal expulsive personality
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messy, disorganized
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Anal retentive
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meticulously neat, compulsive
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Repression
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repressing
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Denial
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denying
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Displacement
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redirecting to another person or object
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Projection
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believing that feelings one has for someone else are held by other person to them
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Reaction formation
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opposite of how one feels
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Regression
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returning to earlier comforting form of behavior
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Rationalization
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beneficial result of undesirable occurrence
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Intellectualization
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undertaking academic, unemotional study of a topic
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Sublimation
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changing frustration to a different goal
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Personal unconscious
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similar to Freud’s view of unconscious
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Complex
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memories that person does not wish to confront
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Collective unconscious
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passed through species, contains archetypes
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Factor analysis
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allows researchers to use correlations between traits to see which cluster together as facts
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Idiographic theorists
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same set of terms to classify all is impossible, each needs to be seen in terms of what few best characterize
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Cardinal disposition
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traits that influence people
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Central disposition
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large influence
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Secondary disposition
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not as influential
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Temperaments
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emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with world
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Somatype theory
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Sheldon, endomorphs, mesomorphs, ectomorphs
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Reciprocal Determinism
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triadic reciprocality, each of a person’s traits, environment and behavior influence the other two in a loop
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Personal-construct theory
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Kelly, people develop own individual systems of personal constructs
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Fundamental postulate
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people’s behaviors are influenced by their cognitions
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Determinism
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belief that what happens is dictated by what happened in the past
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Third force
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arose in opposition to determinism, free will
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Self-concept
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person’s global feeling about himself and herself
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Self-actualize
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requires things from interactions from other, unconditional positive regard, blanket acceptance
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Valid
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test measures what it’s supposed to measure
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Equivalent-form reliability
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correlation between performance on different forms of test
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Face validity
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superficial measure of accuracy
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Content validity
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how well a measure reflects entire range of material it tests
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Criterion-related validity
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concurrent and predictive
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Concurrent validity
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how much of a characteristic a person has now
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Predictive validity
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measure of future performance
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Construct validity
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Correlations between performances on a measure and another measure
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Speed test
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lots of questions, little time
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Power test
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difficulty level of problems is tested
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Fluid intelligence
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ability to solve problems and pick up new information and skills
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Crystallized intelligence
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intelligence accumulated over time
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S
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specific abilities that people regard as intelligence
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G
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single factor of intelligence
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Multiple intelligences
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large range, linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist, intelligence
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EQ
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emotional intelligence
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Sternberg’s triarchic theory
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three types of intelligence, componential or analytic intelligence, experiential intelligence, contextual or practical intelligence,
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Flynn effect
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performance on tests increases through a century, environmental factors play a role
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Characteristics of abnormality
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harmful or disturbing to individual, disturbing to others, unusual, irrational
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Intern’s Syndrome
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tendency to see in oneself the characteristics of disorders
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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constantly nervous people
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Panic disorder
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acute episodes of intense anxiety without apparent provocation
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Somatoform Disorders
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person manifests psychological problem through physiological symptom
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Hypochrondriasis
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physical complaints for which medical doctors can’t locate cause
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Conversion disorder
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people say existence of severe physical problem and can’t do it
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Dissociative Disorders
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disruption in conscious processes
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Psychogenic Amnesia
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can’t remember things and no basis for disruption in memory
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Organic Amnesia
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biologically induced amnesia
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Fugue
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psychogenic amnesia, also find selves in unfamiliar environment
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Dissociative identity disorder
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several personalities
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Major depression
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more than two weeks, no reason
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Seasonal affective disorder
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sad at certain times of year, usually winter
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Bipolar disorder
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depressed and manic episodes
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Cognitive triad
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depression from negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world, their futures
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Schizophrenia
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distorted thinking
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Delusions
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beliefs that have no basis in reality
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Delusions of persecution
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people are out to get you
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Delusions of grandeur
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belief that you enjoy greater power and influence than you do
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Hallucinations
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perceptions in absence of any sensory stimulation
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Disorganized schizophrenics
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odd uses of languages
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Clang associations
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nonsense words that rhyme
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Inappropriate affect
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might laugh in response of death
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Flat affect
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no emotion
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Paranoid schizophrenia
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delusions of persecution
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Catatonic schizophrenia
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odd movements
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Waxy flexibility
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allow body to move into any alternate shape
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Undifferentiated schizophrenia
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exhibit disordered thinking but no symptoms
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Positive symptoms
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excesses in behavior, thought or mood
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Negative symptoms
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deficits such as catatonia or flat affect
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Dopamine hypothesis
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dopamine high levels are associated with schizophrenia
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Tardive dyskinesia
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muscle tremors
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Double bind
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person is given contradictory messages
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Antisocial personality disorder
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little regard for others’ feelings
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Dependent personality disorder
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rely too much on others
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Paranoid personality disorder
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feel persecuted
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Narcissistic personality disorder
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seeing oneself as center of universe
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Histrionic personality disorder
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overly dramatic behaviors
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Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
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overly concerned with certain thoughts
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Paraphilias
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sexual attraction to something
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Autism
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seek out les social and emotional contact than others
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Trephining
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making holes in skull
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Deinstitutionalization
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released people from mental institutions cus of drugs
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Primary prevention
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reduce incidence of societal problems
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Secondary prevention
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working with people at risk
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Tertiary prevention
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keep mental health issues from becoming more severe
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Psychoanalysis
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Freud, patient on couch
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Symptom substitution
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person experiences new psychological problem
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Free associate
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say whatever comes to mind without thinking
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Resistance
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when patients disagree with therapists’ interpretation
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Transference
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patients have strong feelings to therapists
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Determinism
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people have no influence over what happens to them
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Client-centered therapy
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therapists provides client with unconditional positive regard
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Non-directive
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help them not tell them what to do
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Active listening
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they listen actively
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Gestalt therapy
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encourage to explore feelings they aren’t aware of
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Existential therapies
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focus on helping clients achieve a meaningful perception of lives
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Counterconditioning
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Unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with pleasant one
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Systematic desensitization
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teaches client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation
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Anxiety hierarchy
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rank-ordered list of what the client fears
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In vivo desensitization
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have to confront actual items
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Implosive therapy
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imagine most frightening first
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Extinguished
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fear gone
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Flooding
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experiencing one’s peak fear
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Aversive conditioning
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pairing a habit with unpleasant stimulus
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Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
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expose and confront dysfunctional thoughts of clients
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Cognitive Therapy
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trying to get clients to engage in pursuits that will bring success
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Cognitive triad
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people’s beliefs about themselves, worlds, futures
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Self-help group
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no therapist
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Psychopharmacology
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drug therapy
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Electroconvulsive therapy
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electrical current passed through both hemispheres, brief seizure
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Psychosurgery
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destroying brain
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Attitude
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set of beliefs and feelings
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Mere exposure effect
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more exposure, more liking
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Cognitive dissonance theory
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people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors
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Compliance strategies
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getting others to do things
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Foot-in-the-door strategy
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agree to small then big
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Door-in-the-face strategy
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Refuse big, agree to small
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Norms of reciprocity
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people do something nice when they receive something nice
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Attribution theory
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how people determine cause of what they observe
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Disposition or person attribution
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person’s fault, smart at math
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Situational attribution
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situation’s fault, easy test
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Stable attribution, person-stable attribution
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always the same person, always smart
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Person-unstable attribution
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one time situation, hard studying
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Situation-stable attribution
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situation, always, easy teacher
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Situation-unstable attribution
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situation, not the same, hard teacher, except this time
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Consistency
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how similarly individual acts in same situation over time
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Distinctiveness
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how similar situation is to others
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Consensus
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how does everyone else do
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
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expectations about others influence the way they behave
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Fundamental attribution error
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overestimate importance of dispositional factors, underestimate role of situational factors, you say that the person is just mean
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False-consensus effect
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overestimate number of people who agree with them
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Self-serving bias
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tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than bad
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Just-world belief
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misfortunes befall people who deserve them
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Prejudice
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undeserved attitude to a group
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Discrimination
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action of prejudice
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In-group bias
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preference for members of one’s own group
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Instrumental aggression
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aggressive act is to secure an end
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Hostile aggression
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no clear purpose
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Prosocial behavior
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behavior of helping someone else
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Bystander intervention
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people nearby are likely to help others
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Diffusion of responsibility
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larger the group, less responsible any one individual feels to help
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Pluralistic ignorance
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people look at others to decide what to do
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Similarity
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similar to you
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Proximity
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more exposure
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Reciprocal liking
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more someone likes you, more you will like that person
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Self-disclosure
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when one shares a piece of personal info with another
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Social facilitation
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presence of others improves performance
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Social impairment
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presence of others hinders performance
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Conformity
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tendency to go along with everyone else
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Group polarization
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tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than group members would do alone
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Deindividuation
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loss of self-restraint
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Groupthink
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tendency for some groups to make bad decisisons
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