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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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language
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system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination that allows for communication among humans
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4 basic characterstics of language
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sybolic, semantic, generative, structured
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properties: 1. creative, 2. structured, 3. meaningful, 4. referential, 5. interpersonal
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1. rarely repeats the same sentece; 2. obeys strict guidelines; 3 expresses an idea; 4. refers to world events; 5. a social activity
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structure of language
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phonemes-->morphemes-->words-->phrases-->sentences
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phonemes: what are they and how are they produced?
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*smallest unit of speech; distinct sounds; humans can produce about 100 distint ones
* they are produced by forcin air from the lungs through the mouth; varyin movements in the voal apparatus result in the prduction of different phonemes; |
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segmentation problem
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not percieving clear boundaries b/t words; no break in pysical signal or we do percieve them
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mcgurk effect
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hear +see = percieve
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morphemes
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smallest units of meaning in langauge; english contains about 50,00; mainly contenten morphemes (base words) and funcction morphemeses (pre and suffixes)
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definitional theory
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suggests that meaings of words are organized in our minds similar to the manner of a dictionary; each word is assiciated with a number of semantic features
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protoype theory
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suggests that the mind carries a mental prototype of each word, wichi is learned from experience and can be considered a mental average of instances in the category
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what is the earliest stage of language?
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children begin to vocalize at birth; at this point it is similar across all languages; involves all phonemes and can produe all phonemes; can discriminate between them
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what happens at 6 months?
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babbling: pattern of languages spoken by parents; consonant vowel combos
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how does language start to change at 18-24 months?
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vocab. spurt occurs; fast mapping--> single exposure allows children to map a word to a concept
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what happens at 3 yrs?
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children can mostly speak and understand language
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critical period
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an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or else it will not develop at all
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behavorist: who founded this and what is it? how does it effect langauge? what is wrong with it?
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BF Skinner founded it; proposed that langauge is learned through imitation and conditioning--> children imitate parents; prob: children usually dont correct grammatical mistakes in young kids
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nativist theory: who proposed it? what is it?
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proposed by Chomsky; arugued that language acquisition appears to be universal across cultures; humans are inborn with a language acquisition device
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interactionist theory: what is it?
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proposes that both biological predisposition and a supportive environment contribute to language development; nature vs nurture
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in most right handed people, where is language in the brain?
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the left
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what are the two major areas in the brain that deal with language?
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brocas area, wernicke's area
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broca's aphasia (non fluent)
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damage to the the broca's area in the left frontal lobe; patient can understand speech but has a hard time producing it
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wernicke's aphaisa (fluent)
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damage to the wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe results in the patient having difficulty understanding speech and produce fluent but nonsense speech
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in the 1970s, what animal was did scientists try to get speak english? was it successful?
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chimps; no
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which one of this animals relatives was successuful at learning english? who taught it?
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bonobo; taught by sue saage-rumsbaugh; bonobo names kanzi
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directed thinking
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the mental activities used to solve a problem or make a decision
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mental representation
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a mental model of a stimulus or category of stimuli
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what are the two types of mental reprentations? what is their definition?
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analogical rep.: rep. that shares some phyiscal charateritic of the object --> a picture, for example
symobolic rep: rep: that does not correspond to the physical characteristics of what it represents --> a word, for example |
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what are some two aspects of symobolic reps?
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language: definitional prototype of theories or word meanings; describes how concepts ar represented
memory: semantic networks and PDP models; descrie organization of structure |
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what are two aspects of analogical representations?
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mental images: internal visual images
introspection: careful observations of ones own concious experience |
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how is visual imagery studied?
mental rotation: what it is? |
mental rotation: subjects mentally rotate an image in order to correctly identify attributes about it; reation time is measured
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reaction time of mental rotation?
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the farther it must be rotated from 0, the longer it takes the subject to react
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how is visual imagery studied?
mental scanning: what is it? |
subjects are required to memorize landmarks on a visual stimulus; later they are asked to imagine a dot moving from one point to another, reaction time is measured
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reaction time of mental scanning?
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r.t. increases as dot is farther from landmark
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evidence of visual imagery in the brain?
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* fMRI shows visual cortical areas are active during visual imagery --> even in V1
* appliction of TS to visual cortical areas disrupts visual imagery |
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problem solving
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refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily available
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steps of problem solving
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initial state --> problem solving --> goal state
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ill defined problem
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dont know the goal and it is not obvious
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well-defined problem
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know what the goal is that needs to be acheived
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3 categories of problems according to greeno
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problems of inducing structure
problems of arrnagement problems of transformation |
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what is a problem of inducing structure? give an everyday example
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they require people to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas
ex.: analogies; number series completion |
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what is a problem of arrnagement?
give and everyday example |
they require people to arrage the parts of a problem in a way that satisifies some critera
ex.: anagrams/unscrambling words |
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problems of transformation?
give an example |
they require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal
ex.: water jar prob.; tower of hanoi??? |
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obstacles to effective problem solving?
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irrelevant info
functional fixedness mental set unnecessary constraints |
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irrelevant info.
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sometimes probems involve too much info. most of which can lead you astray
ex.: string prob |
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functional fixedness
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the tendency to percieve an item only in terms of its most common use
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mental set
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exists when people persist in using problem solving stragies that have worked in the past
ex.: water prob. |
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unneccessary constraints
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effective prob. solving requires specifying all the constraints governing a prob. w/out assuming any constraints that dont exist
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3 approaches to prob. solving
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trials and error
algorithm heuristic |
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trial and error
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try possible solutions until you find one that works
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algorithm
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methodical step by step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a prob. --> gaurentees solution
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heuristic
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a guiding principle or rule of thumb used in solving probs. or making decisions
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useful heuristics in problem solving
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forming subgoals
working backward finding an analogy changing representation |
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subgoals
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intermediate steps towards a solution
ex.: tower of haoi |
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finding an analogy
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if you can spot an anology b/t probs., you may be able to use the solution to a previous prob. to solve a current one
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reasoning
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process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs
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decsion making
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involoves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
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inductive reasoning
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reason from specific observations to general problems
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deductive reasoning
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drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions
syllogism |
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representativeness hueristic
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involves basing the estimated prb. of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event
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conjunction fallacy
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occurs when people estimate that the odds of 2 uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either happening alone
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availability heuristic
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used to jusdge likelihood or frequency of event or occurrence; ppl tend to biased about info that is easy to recall;
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anchoring and adjustment
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used to estimate value or size of quantity; start from intial val. and adjust to final estimate
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framing effects: risk averse
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a deicision is framed in terms of risk averse it is in terms of gains: protect the smaller gain rather than gamble the larger gain
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framing effects: risk seeking
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if in terms of loss: they will gamble riskily rather than accept a smaller loss
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basis of piagets theory
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children are active explorers creating theories about the world around theml stage theory
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schemas
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organized patterns of thought and behavior
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assimilation
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apply an old schema to a new object
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accomodation
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old ideas are modified to fit new situations
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equilibrium
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more assimilation than accomodation
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disequilibrium
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more accomodation tha assmilation
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stage 1: sensorimotow (birth-2yrs.)
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use senses and movements to explore the world; behabior is primarily simple motor responses to sensory stimuli; no mental rep.; realize diff. b/t self and outside world; imitation, categorization, prob. solving
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preoperational (2-7 yrs.)
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symbolic but illogical thinking; make believe play emerges; egocentrism; unable to accept conservation; basic level categories are formed;
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concrete operational (7-11 yrs.)
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logical and organized thinking; pass conservation tasks; reason logically about concrete info.; not capable of abstract though;
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formal operational (11 yrs. an up)
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abstract and hypothetical; not everyone reaches this stage
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violation of expectation
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babies are habituated to a physical event; then see if babie look longer at impossible events than possible events
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deferred imitation
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when the adult stuck her tongue out at the baby, the baby repsonded doing the same thing to the adult 24 hrs. later
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conservation
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understanding that some physical characteristics stay the same even if they outward appearance changes
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is development discontinous, as piaget though?
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no
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basis of piagets theory
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children are active explorers creating theories about the world around theml stage theory
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postformal reasoning
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increases with age
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schemas
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organized patterns of thought and behavior
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assimilation
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apply an old schema to a new object
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accomodation
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old ideas are modified to fit new situations
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equilibrium
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more assimilation than accomodation
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disequilibrium
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more accomodation tha assmilation
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stage 1: sensorimotow (birth-2yrs.)
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use senses and movements to explore the world; behabior is primarily simple motor responses to sensory stimuli; no mental rep.; realize diff. b/t self and outside world; imitation, categorization, prob. solving
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preoperational (2-7 yrs.)
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symbolic but illogical thinking; make believe play emerges; egocentrism; unable to accept conservation; basic level categories are formed;
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concrete operational (7-11 yrs.)
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logical and organized thinking; pass conservation tasks; reason logically about concrete info.; not capable of abstract though;
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formal operational (11 yrs. an up)
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abstract and hypothetical; not everyone reaches this stage
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violation of expectation
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babies are habituated to a physical event; then see if babie look longer at impossible events than possible events
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deferred imitation
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when the adult stuck her tongue out at the baby, the baby repsonded doing the same thing to the adult 24 hrs. later
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conservation
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understanding that some physical characteristics stay the same even if they outward appearance changes
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is development discontinous, as piaget though?
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no
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postformal reasoning
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increases with age
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vygotskys sociocultural theory
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interaction b/t individual and their surroundings; guided participation; zone of proximal development; scaffolding
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private speech
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self directed speech that children use to plan and guide their behavior; helps kids master hard tasks
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make believe play
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learn that thought is seperate from action; practice social norms; goal setting and self regulation
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info.-processing framework
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"mind as computer"; applies cog psychfrom adult studies to children; focuses on underlying processes that drive development
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attention
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increases with age; older kids are less distracable and better at shiftin attention
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episodic memory
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concious memory of info from specific points in time; older adults are worse than younger adults
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metcognition
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awareness of ones own conitive abilities; young children arent really aware of their thought processes or the thoughs of others, preschoolers are aware of envrionmental influences on memory
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accumualted knowledge
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expert children ccan have more knowledge than adult novices
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expertise as organized knowledge
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experts knowledge is better organized than novices knowledge; relationship b/t chinking stragies is strongr for experts than for novices
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infantile amnesia
why? |
fronal lobes arent mature
child must have sense of self before autobio. memory can persist; discussing narratives facailitates autobiogrpahical memory |
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in old age..
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memory that is impaired involves control processes
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fluid intellegce (Gf)
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ability to process info., reason abstractly, and solve novel problems
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crystallized intellegnce (Gc)
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accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
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dementia
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marked by cognitive decline; loss of abiliy to care for onesself; lose the ability to recognize familiar people and surroundings;
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alzhiemer's
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most common typ of dementia; loss of episodic memory; diorientation; changes in personality; unclear what causes this right now
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alzheimer's and vascular dementia: factors that can lower the risk
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hearly diet and exercise
low cholesterol avoiding smoking increased intake of vitamins |
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approaces to intellegence
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-information processing
-psychometric -multiple intellegences |
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psychometric approach
-fator anaylsis |
statistical techniques are used to define intellectual skills and abilities
-one statistical approach in psychometics is factor analysis --looks for common factors -->items that correlate --factors are named based on how the correltation pan out |
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factor analyisis and different theories of intellegence
SPEARMAN |
factor analysis allows for extraction of a factor that is shared among a variety of intellegence taks
spearman proposed that one factor best described an individuals intellegence -->general intellegence (G): general mental ablility 2 factor theory (g+specific) |
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factor analyisis and different theories of intellegence
THURSTONE (1938) |
there is no g
there are 7 underlying factors of intellegence called primary mental ablities (word fluency, vernal comprehension, spatial ablity, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory) |
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factor analyisis and different theories of intellegence
GUILFORD (1956) |
proposed 150 distinct mental abilities
there mental abilities were characterized into terms of operations, contents, products |
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factor analyisis and different theories of intellegence
CATTELL and HORN -fluid and crystalized intellegence |
propsed that speamans g should be divided into fluid and crystalized intellegence
-gf: reasoning ability, memory, capacity, and speed of information processing -gc: ability to apply acquired knowledge acquired knowledge and skills in problem solving |
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aging, gc and gf
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gc increases with age
gf decreases with age |
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cognitive approach
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simple cognitive sontructs like spped, memory, and attention have been used to explain the basic components of intellegence
althought many explanations exist, differences in basic cognition seem to be the most fruitful |
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reaction time and intellegence
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high and low intellegences differ in reaction time
high intellegences have lower/better reactiont time |
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working memory, attention, and intellegence
--active span tasks |
performance in tasks assessing working memory and attention correlate well with intellegence scores
--active span tasks: asses the ability to hold info online and manipulate it simulatanesouly |
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Gardner (1983)
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THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLEGENCES
-gardener prosposed that there are 8 human intellegences -looked at cognitive abilities in normal, brain damaged, and special populations -claimed that 8intellegences were not correlated -gardener notes that mental abilities appear to be independent -brain damage alters one mental ability, but not others -savants have differing levels of intellegence -there are differing courses of developmental abilities |
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8 intellegences
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musical
bodily/kinesthetic spatial verbal mathematical intra-personal social (inter) naturalist |
