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226 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
sensation
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the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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perception
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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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bottom-up processing
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analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
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top-down processing
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information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience
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psychophysics
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the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
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absolute threshold
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the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
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signal detection theory
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a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.
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subliminal
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below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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difference threshold
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the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference.
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Weber's las
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the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
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sensory adaptation
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diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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selective attention
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the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect
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transduction
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conversion of on form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses
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wavelength
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the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
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hue
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the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, grean and so forth
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intensity
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the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
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pupil
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the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
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iris
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a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
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lens
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the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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accomodation
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the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
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retina
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the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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acuity
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the sharpness of vision
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nearsightedness
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a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina
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farsightedness
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a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina
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rods
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retinal receptors that detect black, white, gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
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cones
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receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
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optic nerve
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the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
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blind spot
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the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
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fovea
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the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
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feature detectors
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nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
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parallel processing
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the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
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Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
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the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color
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opponent-process theory
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the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
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color constancy
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perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
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visual capture
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the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses
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gestalt
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an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
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figure-ground
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the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
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grouping
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the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
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depth perception
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the ability to see ojects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
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visual cliff
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a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
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binocular cues
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depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, tht depend on the use of two eyes
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retinal disparity
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a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
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convergence
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a binocular cue for perceiving depth: the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
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phi phenomenon
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an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession
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perceptual constancy
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perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
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perceptual adaptation
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in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
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perceptual set
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a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
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human factors psychology
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a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors
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extrasensory perception (ESP)
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the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
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parapsychology
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the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
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consciousness
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our awareness of ourselves and our environment
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biological rhythms
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periodic physiological fluctuations
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circadian rhythm
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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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REM sleep
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rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
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alpha waves
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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
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sleep
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periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
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hallucinations
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false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
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delta waves
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the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
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insomnia
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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
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narcolepsy
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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
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sleep apnea
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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings
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night terrors
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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terros occur during Stage 4 sleep, within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
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dream
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a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
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manifest content
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according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent content).
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latent content
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according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve
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REM rebound
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the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
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associative learning
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learning that certain events (two stimuli in classical conditioning) occur together.
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classical conditioning
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a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning
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learning
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a relatively premanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
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behaviorism
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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
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unconditioned response (UCR)
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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response
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conditioned response (CR)
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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
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in classical conditioning, an originally irrevelant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
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acquisition
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the intial stage in classical conditioning; the phrase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
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extinction
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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).
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spontaneous recovery
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the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response
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generalization
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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similiar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
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discrimination
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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distiniguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
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spontaneous recovery
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the reappearnce, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response
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generalization
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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
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discrimination
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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
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associative learning
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learning that certain events (a response and its consequences in operant conditioning) occur together
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operant conditioning
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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
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respondent behavior
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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term from behavior learned through classical conditioning
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operant behavior
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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
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law of effect
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Throndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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operant chamber (Skinner box)
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a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
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learning
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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
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shaping
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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal
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reinforcer
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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
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primary reinforcer
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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satifies a biological need
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conditioned reinforcer
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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer
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continuous reinforcement
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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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parital (intermittent) reinforcement
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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extiniction than does continuous reinforcement
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fixed-ratio schedule
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in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
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variable-ratio schedule
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in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
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fixed-interval schedule
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in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
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variable-interval schedule
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in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
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punishment
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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
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cognitive map
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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
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latent learning
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learning that occurs but it is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
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overjustification effect
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the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task
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intrinsic motivation
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a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to effective
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extrinsic motivation
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a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
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learning
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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
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observational learning
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learning by observing others
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modeling
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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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mirror neurons
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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
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prosocial behavior
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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
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memory se
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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
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flashbulb memory
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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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encoding
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the processing of information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning
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storage
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the retention of encoded information over time
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retrieval
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the process of getting information out of memory storage
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sensory memory
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the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
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short-term memory
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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dailing, before the information is stored or forgotten. Working memory is a similar concept that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
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long-term memory
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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
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automatic processing
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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
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effortful processing
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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
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rehearsal
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the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
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spacing effect
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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice
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serial position effect
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our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
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visual encoding
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the encoding of picture images
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acoustic encoding
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the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
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semantic encoding
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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
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imagery
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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
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mnemonics
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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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chunking
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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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iconic memory
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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
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echoic memory
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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
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long-term potentiation (LTP)
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an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
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amnesia
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the loss of memory
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implicit memory
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retention independent of conscious recollection. Also called procedural memory
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explicit memory
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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declaritive memory.)
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hippocampus
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a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
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recall
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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
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recognition
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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
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relearning
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a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
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priming
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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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deja vu
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that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
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mood-congruent memory
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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
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proactive interference
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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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retroactive interference
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the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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repression
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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
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misinformation effect
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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
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source amnesia
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attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
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cogition
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the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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concept
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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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prototype
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a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
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algorithm
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a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarentees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more errorprone- use of heuristics
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heuristic
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a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
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insight
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a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
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confirmation bias
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a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
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fixation
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the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving
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mental set
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a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
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functional fixedness
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the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
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representativeness heuristic
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judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information
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availability heuristic
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estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
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overconfidence
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the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
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belief bias
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the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
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belief perseverance
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clinging to one's intial conceptions after the bias on which they were formed has been discredited
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artificial intelligence
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the science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to simulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language
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computer neural networks
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computer circuits that mimic that brain's interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterms and smells
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language
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our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
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phoneme
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in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
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morpheme
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in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
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grammar
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in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
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semantics
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the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
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syntax
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the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
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babbling stage
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beginning at 3 to 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
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one-word stage
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the stage in speech development, from about 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
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two-word stage
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beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
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telegraphic speech
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early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting "auxiliary" words
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linguistic determinism
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Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
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intelligence test
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a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
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intelligence
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mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
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factor analysis
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a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score
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general intelligence
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a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
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savant syndrome
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a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
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emotional intelligence
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the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
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creativity
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the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
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mental age
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a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8
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Stanford-Binet
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the widely used American revision (by Terman at Standford) of Binet's original intelligence test
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Intelligence quotient (IQ)
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defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100 (thus IQ=ma/ca x 100) On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assingned a score of 100
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aptitude test
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a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
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achievement test
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a test designed to assess what a person has learned
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Wechsler Adlut Intelligence Scale
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the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
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standardization
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defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group"
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normal curve
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the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many phsyical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
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reliability
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the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
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validity
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the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
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content validity
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the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a drving test that samples driving tasks)
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criterion
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the behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such as SAT) is designed to predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity
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predictive validity
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the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
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mental retardation
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a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
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down syndrome
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a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic make-up
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heritability
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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
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stereotype threat
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a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
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motivation
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a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
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instinct
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a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
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drive-reduction theory
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the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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homeostasis
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a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
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incentive
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a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
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hierarchy of needs
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Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
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glucose
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the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger
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set point
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the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
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basal metabolic rate
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the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
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anorexia nervosa
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an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet still feeling fat, continues to starve
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bulimia nervosa
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an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasing or excessive exercise
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sexual response cycle
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the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
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refractory period
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a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
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sexual disorder
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a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
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estrogen
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a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
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testosterone
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the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
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sexual orientation
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an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).
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flow
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a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting form optimal engagement of one's skills
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industrial-organizational psychology
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the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
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personnel psychology
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a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal and development
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organizational psychology
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a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change
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structured interviews
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interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales
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achievement motivation
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a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
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task leadership
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goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
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social leadership
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gruop-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
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Theory X
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assues that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money and thus should be directed from above
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theory Y
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assumes that given challenge and freedom, workers are intrinsically motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity
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