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126 Cards in this Set
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sensation
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the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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perception
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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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bottom-up processing
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analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
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top-down processing
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information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
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psychophysics
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study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity and our psychological experience of them
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absolute treshold
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minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
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signal detection theory
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a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation and level of fatigue
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subliminal
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below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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priming
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activation (often unconsciously) of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory or response
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difference threshold
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minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd)
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Weber's law
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principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
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sensory adaptation
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diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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transduction
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conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies (such as sights, sounds and smells) into neural impulses our brains can interpret
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wavelength
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distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. (determines its hue)
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hue
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dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light. (what we know as the color names blue, green and so forth)
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intensity
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amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
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pupil
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the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
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iris
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ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
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lens
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transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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retina
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light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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accommodation
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process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
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rods
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retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray. Necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
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cones
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retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
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optic nerve
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the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
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blind spot
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point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a 'blind' spot because no receptor cells are located there
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fovea
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the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
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feature detectors
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nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape,angle of movement
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parallel processing
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the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
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Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
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the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors, one most sensitive for red, one to green, one to blue, which, when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color
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opponent-process theory
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the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example; some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
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audtition
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the sense or act of hearing
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frequency
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the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
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pitch
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a tone's experienced highness or lowness, depends of frequency
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middle ear
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chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
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cochlea
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coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
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inner ear
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the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
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place theory
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in hearing the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
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frequency theory
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in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
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conduction hearing loss
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hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. (eardrum is punctured or tiny bones lose their ability to vibrate)
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sensorineural hearing loss
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hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
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cochlear implant
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a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
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kinesthesis
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the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
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vestibular sense
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the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
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gate-control theory
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the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological 'gate' that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The 'gate' is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in large fibers or by information coming from the brain.
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sensory interaction
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the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
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gestalt
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an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
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figure-ground
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the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surrounding (the ground). (?)
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grouping
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the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
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depth perception
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the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance
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visual cliff
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a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
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binocular cues
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depth cues, such as retinal disparity that depend on the use of two eyes
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retinal disparity
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a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
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monocular cues
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dept cues, such as the interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
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relative height, relative size, interposition, linear perspective, relative motion, light and shadow
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phi phenomenon
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an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
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perceptual constancy
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perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
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shape or size constancy
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color constancy
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perceiving familiar objects having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object
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perceptual adaptation
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in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
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perceptual set
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a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
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human factors psychology
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a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
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extrasensory perception (ESP)
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the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy (reading minds), clairvoyance (sensing that a friend's house in on fire) and precognition (perceiving future events)
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parapsychology
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the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
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consciousness
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our awareness of ourselves and our environment
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cognitive neuroscience
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the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language)
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dual processing
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the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
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selective attention
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the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
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inattentional blindness
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failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
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change blindness
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failing to notice changes in the environment
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circadian rhythm
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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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REM sleep
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rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
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alpha waves
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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
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sleep
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periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness.
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hallucinations
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false sensory experienced, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
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delta waves
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the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
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insomnia
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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
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narcolepsy
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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
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sleep apnea
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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
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night terrors
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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep and are seldom remembered
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dream
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a sequence of images, emotions and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.
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manifest content
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according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent or hidden content)
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latent content
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according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
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REM rebound
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the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
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psychoactive drug
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a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
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tolerance
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the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
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withdrawal
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the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
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physical dependence
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a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
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psychological dependence
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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
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addiction
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compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
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depressants
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drugs (such as alcohol barbiturates and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
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stimulants
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drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
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amphetamines
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drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy to mood changes
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methamphetamine
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a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes (over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels)
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barbiturates
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drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
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opiates
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opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
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ecstasy (MDMA)
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synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin producing neurons and to mood an cognition
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hallucinogens
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psychedelic ('mind-manifesting') drugs such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
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LSD
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a powerful hallucinogenic drug
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THC
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the major active ingredient in marijuna; triggers a variety of effects including mild hallucinations
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near-death experience
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an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
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amplitude
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height from peak to trough
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anvil
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one of the three tiny bones, hammer, anvil, stirrup,of the piston in the middle ear
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hammer
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one of the three tiny bones, hammer, anvil, stirrup,of the piston in the middle ear
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stirrup
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one of the three tiny bones, hammer, anvil, stirrup,of the piston in the middle ear
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basilar membrane
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The basilar membrane within the cochlea of the inner ear is a stiff structural element that separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea
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bipolar cells
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exist between photoreceptors (rods/cones) and ganglion cells
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light makes his way through retina's outer layer of cells (rods/cones), activate bipolar cells, these activate ganglion cells. Axons of ganglion cells converge into the optic nerve.
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convergence
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simultaneous inward movement of both eyes toward each other
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dark adaptation
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adaptation is the ability of the eye to adjust to various levels of darkness and light (rods are more sensitive)
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habituation
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decrease in an elicited behavior resulting from the repeated presentation of an eliciting stimulus
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dishabituation
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the brief recovery of the response to the eliciting stimulus when another stimulus is added
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distal stimulus
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The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, termed the distal stimulus or distal object
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hair cells
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hair cell movements trigger impulses at the base of the nerve cells, whose fibers converge to form the auditory nerve
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just noticeable difference (jnd)
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difference threshold; the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
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linear perspective
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As objects become more distant they appear smaller, like a railway track
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Muller-Lyer illusion
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the optical illusion of the two arrows, which are the same length but one appears longer
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orienting reaction
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is an organism's immediate response to a change in its environment
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percept
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the object of perception
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physical dimensions of light
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wavelength, intensity, and spectral purity as different psychological dimensions of color (hue, brightness, and saturation
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proximal stimulus
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When light from something enters a person's eye and stimulates their retina, that stimulation is the proximal stimulus
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psychological dimensions of light
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Hue (color), Brightness, and Saturation coming from wavelength, intensity and spectral purity
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purity
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It tells us the amount of hue that we see in an object. In other words, it refers to how complex the light wave is
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saturation
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Saturation is related to the physical dimension of spectral purity. it refers to how complex the light wave is. If the light is simple (for example, a sine wave light), it is pure and therefore appears to be very saturated
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selective attention
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is intentional, focused attention to one thing. Selected attention can then be viewed as the process by which people find something upon which to concentrate
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textural gradient
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the distortion in size which closer objects have compared to objects farther away. It also involves groups of objects appearing denser as they move farther away
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tympanic membrane
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The eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is a thin, cone-shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. Its function is to transmit sound from the air to the ossicles inside the middle ear
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Veridical perception
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refers to viewing of things that are imaginary. It means that the person is hallucinating or seeing illusions
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narcolepsy
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a sleep disorder that causes excessive sleepiness and frequent daytime sleep attacks
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sleep apnea
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a sleep disorder characterized by abnormal pauses in breathing or instances of abnormally low breathing, during sleep
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