Psychology

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Psychology

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The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

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Science

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The use of systematic methods to observe the natural world, including human behavior, and to draw conclusions

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Behavior

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Everything we do that can be directly observed

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mental processes

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The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of use experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly

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critical thinking

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the process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence

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empirical method

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Gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning

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structuralism

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Wundt's approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes; so called because of its focus on identifying the structures of the human mind.

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functionalism

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James's approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment

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natural selection

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Darwin's principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring

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biological approach

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An approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

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neuroscience

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The scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system, emphasizing that the brain and nervous system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.

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behavioral approach

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An approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environment determinants

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psychodynamic approach

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An approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences

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humanistic approach

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An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny

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cognitive approach

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An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think and solve problems.

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evolutionary approach

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An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas usch as adaptiation, reproduction and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors

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socioculture approach

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An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior

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psychopathology

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the scientific study of psychological disorders and the development of diagnostic categories and treatments for those disorders

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nervous system

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The body's electrochemical communication circuity

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plasticity

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the brain's special capacity for change

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afferent nerves

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Also called sensory nerves; nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory receptors

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efferent nerves

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Also called motor nerves; nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body

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central nervous system (CNS)

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The brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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The network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body

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somatic nervous system

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the body system consisting of the sensory nerves, whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain and temperature, and the motor nerves, whose function is to tell muscles what to do

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autonomic nervous system

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The body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

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sympathetic nervous system

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The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

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neruons

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one of two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the nerve cells that handle the information-processing function

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glial cells

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Also called glia; the second of two types of cells in the nervous system glial cells provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly

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cell body

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the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substance that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance

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dendrites

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treelike fibers projecting from a neuron,which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body

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axon

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the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells

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myelin sheath

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A layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons

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resting potential

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In an inactive neuron, the voltage between the inside and outside of the axon wall

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action potential

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The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

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all-or-nothing principle

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The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity

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Synapses

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Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps

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neurotransmitters

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chemical substance that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron

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Acetylcholine (AcH)

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Stimulates the firing of neurons and is involved in muscle action, learning, and memory. Found in the central and peripheral nervous systems

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GABA (gamma aminobutryic acid)

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Found throughout the central nervous system. Believed to be present in one-third of the brain's synapses. Regulation of neuron firing and controls the precision of the signal being carried from one neuron to the next.

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Glutamate

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Excites many neurons to fire and is especially involved in learning and memory

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Norepinephrine

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Inhibits the firing of neurons in the central nervous system, but excites the heart muscles, intestines, and urogenital tract. Also helps to control alertness.

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Dopamine

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Helps control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize opportunities for rewarding experiences in the environment

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Serotonin

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Regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning

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Endorphins

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Natural opiates - substances that depress nervous system activity and eliminate pain - that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons. As opiates, endorphins shield the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure

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Oxycotin

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hormone and neurotransmitter that plays an important role in experiences of love and social bonding.

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neural networks

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Networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output

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Brain lesioning

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An abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain resulting form injury or disease

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electroencephalograph (EEG)

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Records the electrical activity of the brain. Electrodes placed on the scalp detect brain-wave activity, which is recorded on a chart known as an electroencephalogram.

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CAT (computerized axial tomography) Scan

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Produces a three dimensional image obtained from X rays of the head that are assembled into a composite image by a computer. PRovides valaubel information about the location and extent of damage involved in stroke, language disorder, or loss of memory.

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positron-emission tomography (PET scan)

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Measures the the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain and sends this information to a computer for analysis. Neurons use glucose for energy, so glucose levels vary with the levels of activity throughout the brain. Tracing the amounts of glucose generates a picture of activity levels throughout the brain.

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magnetic resonance imaging`(MRI)

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Creating a magnetic field around a person's body and using radio waves to construct images of ht person's tissues and biochemical activities. Provides considerable information about a brain's structure, they cannot portray function

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functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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Exploits changes in blood oxygen that occur in association with brain activity.

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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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Magnetic coils are placed over the person's head and directed at a particular brain area. TMS uses a rapidly changing magnetic field to induce breif electric current pulses in the brain, and these pulses trigger action potentials in neurons. Immediately following this burst of action potentials, activity in the targeted brain area are inhibited causing a virtual lesion.

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hindbrain

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Located at the skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons.

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medulla

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Begins where the spinal cord enters the skull. Controls many vital functions, such as breathing and heart rate. It also regulates our reflexes

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pons

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A bridge in the hindbrain that connects the cerebellum and the brain stem. Contains several clusters of fibers involved in sleep and arousal.

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brain stem

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The stemlike brain area that includes much of the hindbrain (it does not include the cerebellum) and the midbrain; it connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain

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midbrain

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Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears.

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reticular formation

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A system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons invovled in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, turning to attend to a sudden noise

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forebrain

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The brain's largest division and its most forward part

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limbic system

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A loosely connected netowrk of structures under the cerebral cortex, important in both memory and emotion. Its two principal structures are the amygdalia and the hippocampus

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amygdala

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An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as approprrate food, mates, and social rivals

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hippocampus

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The structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories

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thalamus

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The forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain's central core and serves as an important relay station

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basal ganglia

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Large neuron clusters located about the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex t hat work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements

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hypothalamus

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A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities - eating, drinking, and sex - as well as emotion, stress, and reward

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cerebral cortex

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Part of the forebrain, the other layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning

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neocortex

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the outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain. involved in high-level thinking and is strongly related to the size of the social group in which the organisms live

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occipital lobe

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Structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimul

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temporal lobes

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Structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just about the ears are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory

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frontal lobes

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The portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles

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parietal lobes

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structures at the top and twoard the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control

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somatosensory cortex

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A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes

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motor cortex

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A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement, located just behind the frontal lobes

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association cortex

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Sometimes called association areas, the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving

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corpus callosum

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The large bundle of axons that connects the brain's tow hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides

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hormones

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Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body

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Pituitary Gland

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a pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands

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adrenal glands

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Glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress

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pancreas

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A dual-purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions

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ovaries

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Sex-related endocrine glands in the uterus that produce hormones related to women's sexual development and reproduction

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testes

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Sex-related endocrine glands in the scrotum that produce hormones related to men's sexual development and reproduction

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chromosomes

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In the human cell, threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair, originating from each parent, and that contains the remarkable substance DNA

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deoxyribosenucleic acid (DNA)

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A complex molecule in the cells chromosomes that carries genetic information

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genes

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The units of hereditary information, consisting of short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA

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dominant-recessive genes principle

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The principle that, if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive

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genotype

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An individual's genetic heritage his or her actual genetic material

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phenotype

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An individual's observable characteristics

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stress

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The responses of individuals to environmental stressors

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stressors

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Circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities and that cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle the assault of stress

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sensation

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The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy

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perception

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the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it has meaning

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bottom-up processing

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The operation in sensation and perception in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interperetation

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top-down processing

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The operation in sensation and perception, launched by cognitive processing at the brain's higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply that framework to information from the world

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sensory receptors

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specialized cells that detect stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain

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absolute threshold

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the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect

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noise

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irrelevant and competing stimuli - not only sounds but also any distracting stimuli for our senses

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difference threshold

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The degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected

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Weber's law

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The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different

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subliminal perception

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the detection of information below the level of conscious awareness

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signal detection theory

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A theory of perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty

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attention

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the process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment

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selective attention

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the process of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others

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perceptual set

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A predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way

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sensory adaptation

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A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation

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retina

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the multilayered light-sensitive surface in the eye that records electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain

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rods

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the receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light but not very useful for color vision

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cones

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the receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception

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optic nerve

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the structure at the back of the eye, made up of axons of the ganglion cells, that carries visual information to the brain for further processing

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feature detectors

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neurons in the brain's visual system that respond to particular features of a stimulus

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parallel processing

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the simultaneous distribution of information across different neural pathways

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binding

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in the sense of vision, the bringing together and integration of what is processed by different neural pathways or cells

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trichromatic theory

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theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths

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opponent-process theory

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Theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue

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figure-ground relationship

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the principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (ground)

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gestalt psychology

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a school of though interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns

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convergence

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a binocular cue to depth and distance in which the muscle movements in our two eyes provide information about how deep and/or far away something is

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monocular cues

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Powerful depth cues available from the image in one eye, either the right or left

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apparent movement

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the perception that a stationary object is moving

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perceptual constancy

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the recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing

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outer ear

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the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal

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middle ear

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the part of the ear that channels sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear

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inner ear

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the part of the ear that includes the oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane and whose function is to convert sound waves into neural impulses and send them to the brain

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place theory

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Theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane

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frequency theory

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theory on how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that the perception of a sound's frequency depends on how often auditory nerve fires

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volley principle

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modification of frequency theory stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses

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auditory nerve

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the nerve structure that receives information about sound from the hair cells of the inner ear and carries these neural impulses to the brain's auditory areas

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thermoreceptors

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sensory nerve endings under the skin that respond to changes in temperature at or near the skin and provide input to keep the body's temperature at 98.6 degrees

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pain

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The sensation that warns us of damage to our bodies

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papillae

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Rounded bumps above the tongue's surface that contain the taste buds, the receptors for taste

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olfactory epithelium

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the lining the roof of the nasal cavity, containing a sheet of receptor cells for smell

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kinesthetic senses

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senses that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation

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vestibular senses

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sense that provide information about balance and movement

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semicircular canals

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three fluid-filled circular tubes in the inner ear containing the sensory receptors that detect head motion caused when we tilt or move our head and/or body

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memory

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the retention of informaiton or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval

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encoding

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the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage

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sustained attention

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Also called vigilance, the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

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divided attention

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concentrating on more than one actiivty at the same time

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levels of processing

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a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory

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elaboration

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the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding

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storage

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the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory

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Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

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Theory stating that memory storage invovles three separate systems: sensory memory, short-term memory,and long-term memory

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sensory memory

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memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory from for only an instant, not much longer tan the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses

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short-term memory

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limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 second unless we use strategies to retain it longer

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working memory

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a three-part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions and solve problems.

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explicit memory

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Also called declarative memory, the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or evens and, at least in humans, information that be verbally communicated

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episodic memory

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the retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings - that is how individuals remember life's episodes

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semantic memory

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A person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school; and everyday knoweldge

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implicit memory

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also called nondelcarative memory, memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

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procedural memory

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memory for skills

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priming

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the activation of hinformation that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster

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schema

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a preexisting mental concept or freamework that helps people to organize interpret information. Schemas from prior encounters with the environment influence the way we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information

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script

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a schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences

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connectionism

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also called parallel distributed processing (PDP), the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory

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retrieval

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the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

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serial position effect

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the tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle

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autobiographical memory

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a special form of episodic memory, consisting of person's recollections of his or her life experiences

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flashbulb memory

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the memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events

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motivated forgetting

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forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

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interference theory

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the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember

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proactive interference

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situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later

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retroactive interference

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situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier

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decay theory

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theory stating that when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggest that the passage of time always increases forgetting

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tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

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A type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident that we know something but cannot quite pull it out of memory

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retrospective memory

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remembering information from the past

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prospective memory

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remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions

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amnesia

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the loss of memory

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anterograde amnesia

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a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events

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retrograde amnesia

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memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events

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cognition

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the way in which information is processes and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing

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artificial intelligence (AI)

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A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

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thinking

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the mental process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critical or creatively

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concept

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a mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics

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prototype model

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a model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most item(s) in that category and looks for a "family resemblance" with that item's properties

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problem solving

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the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available

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subgoals

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intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution

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algorithms

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Strategies - including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions - that guarantee a solution to a problem

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heurstics

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shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

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fixation

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using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective

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functional fixedness

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failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions

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reasoning

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the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

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inductive reasoning

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reasoning from a specific observations to make a generalizations

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deductive reasoning

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reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance

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decision making

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the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refuses them

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome

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availability heuristic

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A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imaging similar events

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base rate fallacy

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the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information

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mindfulness

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the state of being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities

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open-mindedness

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the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things

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creativity

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the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems

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divergent thinking

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thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

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convergent thinking

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thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

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intelligence

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all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive task, to solve problems, and to learn from experince

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validity

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the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

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reliability

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the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance

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standardization

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the development of uniform procedures for administrating and scoring of test, and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test

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mental age (MA)

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an individual's level of mental development relative to that of others

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

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An individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100

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normal distribution

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A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing towards the extremes of the range

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culture-fair tests

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intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased

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heritability

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The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members

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gifted

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possessing high intelligence (an IQ if 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area

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intellectual disability

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a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and difficulty adapting to everyday life

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triarchic theory of intelligence

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Sternberg's theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical

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language

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A form of communication - whether spoken, written, or signed - that is based on a system of symbols

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infinite generativity

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the ability of language to produce endless number of meaningful sentences

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phonology

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a language's sound system

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morphology

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a language's rules for word formation

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syntax

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a language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences

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semantics

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the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language

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pragmatics

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the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said

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cognitive appraisal

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individuals' interpretation of the events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events

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coping

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managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life's problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress