Psychology 2 Exam 1

Front 1

Intuitive

Back 1

The obvious or expected reaction to something. They are not always perfect and can change.

Front 2

Priming

Back 2

A way psychologists subtly influence behavior. It is a phenomena by which exposure to a stimulus influences behavior.

EX: Being primed with a picture of a bubble bath will make you more likely to fill in SO__P as "SOAP" and not "SOUP"

Front 3

Empirical

Back 3

The idea that information about reality can be obtained through observation using the senses (and tools that aid the senses), as opposed to intuition, deduction, or faith. The scientific method starts with empiricism, and rational explanations and theories are based on the data.

Front 4

Dependent VS Independent Variable

Back 4

Dependent Variable: what the experiment is measuring. It is affected by the treatment.

Independent Variable: the thing that is manipulated by the researcher. It is set before the experiment.

Front 5

Confounding Variable

Back 5

Things outside the experiment that may have an effect on the outcome. This can be managed through restriction, matching, and randomization.

Front 6

Dissemination

Back 6

The spreading of ideas and theories that have been tested and confirmed.

Front 7

Knock-Out (Genetic Model)

Back 7

(Animal only)

Removing a gene and studying the effects. It can target specific genes and cell types within specific tissues to tell us how that gene affects behavior.

EX: Does the oxytocin gene affect maternal behavior?

Front 8

Spatial Resolution

Back 8

Measuring neuron activity; Spatial resolution (related to physical space) tells you what is the smallest feature you can see based on your detector

Front 9

Temporal Resolution

Back 9

Measuring neuron activity: Temporal resolution (related to time) tells you how quickly you can measure things

Front 10

Non-Invasive

Back 10

Where a patient does not have to be subjected to painful, uncomfortable, or long-term procedures.

Front 11

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Back 11

Uses magnets and radio waves to determine changes in the level of blood oxygen in the brain, an indicator of neural activity. It can show activity deep within the brain. Has poor temporal resolution because there is a time lag between neuron activity and BOLD signal. It has a better spacial resolution than an EEG.

Front 12

Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD)

Back 12

It is an indicator of neuronal activity. There is a lag time between the BOLD signal and the activity. They differ across brain areas.

Front 13

Lesion

Back 13

(Usually in animal subjects) Lesions are strictly performed and precise cuts in the brain. They either remove a section or turn it off. this can target a specific location or cell type.

Front 14

Generalization (of a CS)

Back 14

When a conditioned stimulus has a unique quality or characteristic, the subject may relate/connect all things with the same quality to the conditioned response.

EX: Little Albert and the white rat: became afraid of all small, white, fuzzy things.

Front 15

Confederate (experiment)

Back 15

An experimenter that is within the test and knows how to manipulate the subject or react in a certain way to observe results

EX: Milgram "Teacher-Learner" experiment

Front 16

Plasticity (retraining)

Back 16

In the Silver Spring Monkey Experiment, the somatosensory cortex had reorganized in response to lesions. Neurons in the brain can "rewire" following a traumatic injury. Proved the idea of Adult Plasticity. Led to idea of retraining therapy.

Front 17

Informed Consent

Back 17

Participants not only need to consent to be in research, they need to clearly understand what they are consenting to. There are special considerations for the disabled, mentally handicapped, non-native English speakers, children, prisoners, and the elderly.

Front 18

Debriefing

Back 18

If the subject was misled in any way for the purposes of study, they must be completely informed after the experiment has taken place.

Front 19

Confidentiality

Back 19

In research publishings, talks, notes, articles, etc., the participant cannot be identified in any way, including appearances and other factors.

Front 20

Enrichment

Back 20

For animal subjects, on top of clean living situations and fresh food/water, there must be some form of stimulation to preserve animal's natural inclinations

EX: running wheel, toys, etc.

Front 21

Analgesic

Back 21

Used during procedures to block awareness and prevent pain.

Front 22

Dendrite

Back 22

The receiving end, located on the soma. This is where other cells connect to the neuron. Dendritic spines can further increase the surface area of the dentrites, allowing them to receive optimal signals

Front 23

Axon

Back 23

The sending end, which is located between the soma and terminal branches. This sends the signals away from the soma.

Front 24

Myelin Sheath

Back 24

Coats the axon. Insulates the electrical signals so they can work faster and more efficiently.

Front 25

Synaptic Gap

Back 25

The "connecting point" of two neurons. There is actually a gap where chemical signals are released.

Front 26

Neurotransmitters

Back 26

Released from the presynaptic terminal and then attaches to the receptors on the dendrite.

Front 27

Presynaptic Terminal

Back 27

The end of the axon that specialize in the release of neurotransmitters. They receive a nerve impulse from the presynaptic neuron, which then convey information to vesicles that hold the chemical signal. The vesicles bind to the membrane of the terminal, and release the neurotransmitters into the gap.

Front 28

Resting Membrane Potential

Back 28

Neurons normally have a negative resting potential because they have less positive ions in the surrounding medium, and more negative ions inside. This creates concentration gradients and electrostatic force. Neurotransmitters open ion channels to create a reaction.

Front 29

Ion Channel

Back 29

Triggered by neurotransmitters to let ions in or out, changing the resting membrane potential. This creates an excitatory or inhibitory post synaptic potential.

Front 30

Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP)

Back 30

When positive ions (like Na+) enter the post synaptic cell

Front 31

Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP)

Back 31

When positive ions (like K+) leave the cell, or a negative ion (like Cl-) enters the cell

Front 32

Glutamate

Back 32

Opens sodium (Na+) ion channels on the post synaptic cell. It is typically an excitatory NT and generates an EPSP.

Front 33

GABA

Back 33

Opens Cl- ion channels on post synaptic cell. It is typically an inhibitory NT and generates an IPSP

Front 34

Acetylcholine

Back 34

Was the first NT to be identified in 1915. Nerons that contain ACh are called "cholinergic" neurons. It is typically an excitatory NT, opening up Na+ channels. It is used in the brain and also at neuro-muscular junctions.

Front 35

Agonist

Back 35

Increases the activity of a NT receptor

Front 36

Antagonist

Back 36

Decreases the activity of a NT receptor

Front 37

Addiction

Back 37

Recurrent failure to control behavior. There is a positive correlation between addictiveness of a drug and its ability to activate the dopaminergic reward circuitry. Drugs activate some neural pathways and mechanisms involved in learned behaviors.

Front 38

Withdrawal

Back 38

Develops after the brain has changed in response to repeated use

Front 39

Tolerance

Back 39

Higher tolerance means more is needed to produce the same effect.

Front 40

Primary Motor Cortex (M1)

Back 40

Pre-central gyrus that does not send direct info to muscles, but sends signals through the spine. Pulsing stimuli direct contraction of specific muscles for voluntary tasks (thinking about movement). Continuous pulses produce complex movements. It is less involved in involuntary movements.

Front 41

Motor Homunculus

Back 41

Specific areas of the motor cortex are responsible for control of specific areas of the body. More brain area is devoted to body parts that are needed for more complex tasks. There is a skewed distribution of brain devotion.

Front 42

Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC)

Back 42

Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the rest of the world. It integrates somatosensory and visual stimuli to guide movement. Damage to this area causes difficulty in coordination. This is important for planning movement.

Front 43

Basal Ganglia

Back 43

Involved in doing routine things. There are direct and indirect pathways that excite or reduces stimulation to the cortex. Severe loss of dopaminergic neurons results in less excitation of the cortex.

Front 44

Parkinson's Disease

Back 44

Involves the loss and malfunction of neurons in the area of the basal ganglia called the substantia nigra. The dying cells produce dopamine (helps control movement and coordination). As it progresses, the amount of dopamine in the brain decreases, leaving a person unable to control movement normally,

Front 45

Sensory Adaptation

Back 45

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation. It is more important to detect change than to detect a continuous stimulus. The brain will ignore it, but will notice when it stops. This is so you don't use resources on irrelevant stimuli.

Front 46

Bottom-Up Processing

Back 46

Data are relayed in the brain from lower to higher levels of processing. This is what the actual stimulus is out in reality.

Front 47

Top-Down Processing

Back 47

Information at higher levels of processing can influence lower levels in the processing hierarchy. Previous knowledge, expectations, and contextual factors may affect what you actually experience.

Front 48

Transduction

Back 48

The brain cannot process physical stimuli directly, so it must be translated into chemical and electrical signals. Transduction is the process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation. Connecting neurons transmit info to the brain, usually through the thalamus.

Front 49

Sensory Receptors

Back 49

Taste: cells in taste buds transmit information to nerves.

Smell: sensitive ends of olfactory neurons in the mucous membranes go to the olfactory nerve.

Touch: Sensitive ends of neurons on the skin go to cranial nerves for touch.

Hearing: Pressure-sensitive hair cells in cochlea of inner ear go to the auditory nerve.

Vision: Light-sensitive rods and cones in retina go to the optic nerve.

Balance: Hair cells projects to the cerebellum, cranial nerves, and thalamus.

Front 50

Photoreceptors

Back 50

The sensory receptors for the eyes. They are located in the back of the eyeball in the retina.

Front 51

Rods and Cones

Back 51

Rods: sensory cells that respond to low levels of illumination; results in black and white perception. Important to see in dim light and for peripheral vision.

Cones: sensory cells that respond to higher levels of illumination; results in color vision and detail. Found throughout the retina, but concentrated in the fovea. (Short cones for blue-violet, Medium for yellow-green, and long for red-orange).

Front 52

Fovea

Back 52

Greatest visual acuity and number of cones are found in the fovea, which receives light from the center of your visual field. It is dipped inwards to hold a high concentration of light.

Front 53

Optic Chiasm

Back 53

All information converge on ganglion cells, which gather into the optic nerve. The optic nerves cross at the chiasm. The right hemisphere processes left field of vision and vise versa. Information then travels through the thalamus, and to the primary visual cortex.

Front 54

Simple Cells

Back 54

Found exclusively in the primary visual cortex and respond principally to simple information about visual objects (edges, orientation, location, and motion). Each cell focuses on a specific, basic stimuli.

Front 55

Ventral Visual Stream

Back 55

"What" stream. Specialized for the perception and recognition of objects.

Front 56

Dorsal Visual Stream

Back 56

"Where" stream. Specialized for spatial perception (locating objects)

Front 57

Good Continuation

Back 57

The tendency to interpret intersecting lines as continuous rather than as changing direction radically. This allows differentiation of stimuli, even when there is visual overlap.

Front 58

Binocular Disparity

Back 58

Binocular depth cues are from both eyes and contribute to bottom-up processing. Because of the distance between a person's eyes, each eye receives a slightly different image. The brain uses the disparity to compute distances to nearby objects

Front 59

Occlusion

Back 59

(Monocular depth perception) Near objects block far away objects

Front 60

Eardrum

Back 60

Sound waves are patterns of changes in air pressure during a period of time, producing sound. These waves travel through the eardrum, causing in to vibrate. The vibrations go through middle ear to cochlea.

Front 61

Cochlea

Back 61

Contains fluid and basilar membrane. Vibrations cause pressure waves in fluid. The waves from the basilar membrane bend hair cells.

Front 62

Hair Cells

Back 62

These are the primary auditory receptors. They transmit to the auditory nerve and beyond.

Front 63

Haptic

Back 63

(Touch) Receptors for temperature, pressure, and pain in skin's outer layer. Different signals and higher order mental processes combined to produce haptic experience. Sensitive regions of the body have a greater amount of the cortex devoted to them.

Front 64

Plasticity

Back 64

With the exception of the hippocampus and subventricular zone, neurogenesis is uncommon. the idea of adult neural plasticity was studied in 80's by Taub, Pons, and Merzenich.

EX: The removal of one finger ---> over time, areas of the brain devoted to other digits moved into the part where the missing finger was.

EX: Blind people visual cortex is used for tactile discrimination

Front 65

Collateral Sprouts

Back 65

After injury, new branches can be formed by non-damaged axons that reach out (by chemical attraction) to vacant receptors.