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80 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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theory of reasoned norms
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a theory that maintains that people's deliberate behavior can be accurately predicted by knowing their attitudes toward specific behavior and their subjective norms
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subjective norms
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people's beliefs about whether others are likely to approve of a course of action
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prime
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a stimulus presented to mentally activate a concept, and hence, make is accessible
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cognitive dissonance theory
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the tehory that inconsistencies among a person's thoughts, sentiments, and actions create an aversive emotional state that leads to effors to restore consistency
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self-affirmation
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taking stock of one's good qualities and core values, which can help a person cope with threats to self-esteem
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effort justification
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the tendency to reduce dissonance by finding reasons for why a person has devoted time, effort, or money for something ath turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing to the person
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balance theory
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a theory that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments
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attribution theory
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an umbrella term used to describe the theoretical accounts of how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects that people's casual assessments have
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self-serving bias
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the tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances but to attribute success and other good events to oneself
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correspondence bias
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the tendency to draw an inference about a person that "corresponds to the behavior observed." Also referred to as the fundamental attribution error.
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co-variation principle
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the idea that we should attribute behavior to potential causes that co-occur with behavior
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just-world hypothesis
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the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get
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actor-observer difference
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differences in attribution based on who is makeing the causal assessment: the actor (who is relatively disposed to make situational attributions) or the oberservers (who is relatively disposed to make dispositional attribution)
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false consensus
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the tendency for people to think that their behavior (as well as their attitudes, preferences, or responses more generally) is relatively common
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Heuristics
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intuitive mental operations that allow us to make a variety of judgments quickly and efficiently
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availability heuristic
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the process whereby judgments of frequency or probablity are based on the ease with which pertinent instances are brought to mind
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representativeness heuristic
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the process whereby judgments of likelihood are based on assessments of similarity between individuals and group prototypes or cause and effect
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framing
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the influence on judgment resulting from the way information is presented, including the order of presentation
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schemas
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a knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information (prior knowledge); prior knowledge may influence how we judge things
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sharpening
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emphasizing important or more interesting elements in telling a story to someone else
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leveling
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eliminating or demphasizing seemingly less important details when telling a story to someone else
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encoding
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filing information away in memory based on what is attended to and the intial interpretation of information
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retrieval
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the extraction of information from memory
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bottom up processes
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data-driven mental processing in which one takes in and forms conclusions on the basis of the stimuli encountered in one's experience
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top-down processes
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theory driven mental processing in which one filters and interprets new infromation in light of pre-existing knowledge and expectation
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primacy effect
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the disproportionate influence on judgment of information first in a body of evidence
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recency effect
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the dirproportionate infleunce on judgment of information presented last in a body of evidence
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flashbulb effect
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vivid recollections of the moment one learned some dramtic, emotionally charged news (ex. 9/11)
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stereotype
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beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of members of particular groups
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prejudice
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a negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual
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discrimination
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unfair treatment of members of particular group based on their membership in that group
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economic perspective
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groups develop prejudices about one another and discriminate against one another when they compete for material resources (example Robbers Cavs experiment)
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realistic group conflict theory
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a theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited desired resources
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motivational perspective
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inter-group hostility can develop because of the mere fact aht another group exists. Imposing group boundaries on a collection of individuals can be sufficient to initiate group discussion
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social identity theory
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a theory that a person's self-concept and self-esteem not only derive from personl identity and accomplishments, but from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs
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cognitive perspective
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stereotyping is inevitable because of the ubiquity and necessity of categorization. Categorizing serves the purpose of simplifying the task of taking in and processing the incredible volumer of stimuli that confronts us
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automatic processes
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processes that occur outside of our aweareness without conscious control
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controlled processes
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processes that occur with conscious direction and deliberate thought
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modern prejudice
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prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongisde of rejection of explicitly racist beliefs
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implicit association test
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a technique for revealing non-conscious prejudices toward particular groups
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stereotype threat
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the feat that one will confirm the stereotypes that others have regarding some salient group of which one is a member
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minimal group paradigm
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an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on an arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave towards one another
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attributional ambiguity
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people want to know the causes of events around them in order to acheive a sense that they lief in an ordered, predictable world. But this sense is threatened for members of stigmatized groups because they cannot tell whether many of their experiences have the same origins as those of everyone else of whether they are the result of prejudice
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autonomic nervous system
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the glands, organs, muscles, arteries, and veins throughout the body that are controlled by nerve cells originating in the spinal cord and that help the individual deal with emergency situations
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encoding hpothesis
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the hypothesis that the experience of different emotions is associated with the same distinct facial expressions across cultures
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decoding hypothesis
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the hypothesis that people of different cultures can interpret distinct facial expressions for different emotions in the same ways
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two-factor theory of emotion
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a theory that says there are two components to emotional experience: undifferentiated physiological arousal an a person's construal of that state of undifferentiated arousal
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appraisal processes
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the ways whereby we evaluate events and objects in our environment according to their relation to our current goals
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emotion-congruence perspective
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the theory that maintains that moods and emotions are connected nodes, or areas in the associative networks of the mind, and that the content of the mood or emotion influences judgments of other events or objects
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emotion congruence perspective
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a theory that maintains that moods and emotions are connected nodes or areas in the associative netowrks of the mind and that the content of the mood or emotion influences judgments of other events or objects
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duration neglect
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the relative unimportance of the length of an emotional experience be it pleasurable or unpleasant in judging the overall experience
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immune neglect
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the tendency to underestimate our capacity to be resilient in responding to life events which leads use to overestimate the extent to which life's difficulties will reduce our personal well-being
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orbitofrontal cortex
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a region of the frontal lobes that is adjacent to the jagged, bony ridges of the skull's openings for the eyes. This part of the brain controls one's ability to appease, reconcile, forgive, and participate in the social-moral order
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duchenne smile
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the smiles that involve the activation of the zygomatic major muscle and the orbicularis oculi and tend to last between one and five and the lip corners tend to be raised to equal degrees on both sides of the face
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laughter
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behavioral output of the experience of humor
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frustration-aggression hypothesis
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the determinant of aggression is frustration, the internal state tht accompanies the thwarting of an individual's attempt to achieve some goal
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culture of honor
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a culture that is defined by strong concerns about one's own and others' reputations leading to sensitivity to slights and insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any percieved wrong or insult
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bystander intervention
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helping a victim of an emergency by those who have observed what is happening; it is generally reduced as the number of observers increases as each individual fells that someone else will be likely to help
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diffusion of responsiblity
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a reduction in the sense of urgency to help someone involved in an emergency or dangeous situation under the assumption that others who are also observing the situation will help
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pluralistic ignorance
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misperception of a group norm that results from observing people who are acting at variance with their private beliefs out of a concern for the social consequences
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altruism
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the unselfish behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for the self
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kin selection
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the tendency for natural selection to favor behavior s that increase the chances of survival of genetic relatives
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reciprocal altruism
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the tendency to help other individuals with the expectation that they will be likely to help in return at some other time
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social rewards
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benefits like praise, positive attention, tangible rewards, honors, and gratitude that may be gained from helping others
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empathy-based altruism
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identifying with another person and feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing
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vagus nerve
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a bundle of nerves that resides in the chest and when activated, produces a feeling of spreading, liquid warmth in the chest and a lump in the throat. This nerve orginates in the top of the spinal cord and then winds its way through the body connecting up to facial muscle tissue, muscles that are involved in vocalization. it is the nerve of compassion
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compassion
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biologically based emotion roote deep in the mammalian brain and shaped by perhaps the most potent of selection pressures humans evolved to adapt to - the need to care for the vulnerable. Tied withh the vagus nerve (activates it)
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pride
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a emotion that focuses on what is trong about the self and one that does not activate the vagus nerve
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morality
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a system of principles and ideals that people use as a guide to make evaluative judgments of the actions or character of a person and includes obligative, inclusiveness, and sanctions
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ethic of autonomy
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a framework of moral reasoning that is centered on rights and equality and is focues on protecting individuals freedom to pursue their own interests
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ethic of community
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a framework of moral reasoning that revolves around duty, status, hierarchy, and interdependence and whose goals is to protect relationships and roles within social groups to which one belongs
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ethic of divinity
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a framework of moral reasoning that is defined by a concern for purity, sanctity, pollution and sin
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distributive justice
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a type of justice that is based on whehter people feel that the outcomes they recieve are fair or unfair
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procedural justice
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a type of justice that is based on whether the processes by which rewards and punishments that are distributed are considered fair
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restorative justice
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the actions people take from apologies to punishment to restore justice
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the prisoner's dilemma game
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monetary payoffs with two options: cooperate or defect. from economic standpoint it is better to defect than cooperate
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tit for tat strategy
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a strategy in which one cooperates with one's opponent on the first round and then reciprocates whatever the opponent did on the previous meeting cooperation with cooperation and defection with defection
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effects of touch on stress
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reduces the stress hormone cortisol and increases levels of serotonin and endorphines
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effects on touch on trust
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triggers biocemical reactions in the recipient and increases neurochemicals like oxytocin which promote trust and goodwill between individuals
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effects of touch on communication
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touch can readily communicate different emotions
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