Psychology

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psychology

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the science of behavior and mental processes

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nature-nurture issue

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the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behavior

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natural selection

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the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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neuroscience perspective

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how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

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evolutionary perspective

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how nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation of one's genes

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behavior genetics perspective

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how much our genes and environment influence our individual differences

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psycho-dynamic perspective

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how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

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behavioral perspective

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how we learn observable responses

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cognitive perspective

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how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

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social-cultural perspective

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how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

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basic research

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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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applied research

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scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

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clinical psychology

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a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

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psychiatry

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a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (AKA I knew it all along phenomenon)

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critical thinking

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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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theory

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an explanation using an ntegrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

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hypothesis

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a testable predictions, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Ex. intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our belief and behaviors

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population

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all the cases in a group, from which samples may be draw for a study

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

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correlation coefficient

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a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

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scatterplot

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cluster of dots graph, slope equals correlation
perfect relation= +1.00
No relationship= 0.00
perfect negative=-1.00

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illusory correlation

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the perception of a relationship where none exists

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placebo

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a inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

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double-blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. used in drug evaluation studies.

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placebo effect

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any effect on behavior caused by a placebo

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experimental condition

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the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

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control condition

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the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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random assignment

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assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

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independent variable

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the variable that is manipulated

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dependent variable

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the factor that is being measured

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mode

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most occuring

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mean

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average

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median

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middle number

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range

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difference between highest and lowest score

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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statistical significance

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a statistical criterion for rejecting the assumption of no differences in a particular study

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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biological psychology

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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

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neuron

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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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dendrite

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the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

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axon

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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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myelin sheath

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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

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action potential

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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. Generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

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threshold

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a level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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synapse

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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and blind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

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acetylcholine

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a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contractions

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endorphins

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"morphine within"- natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

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nervous system

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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

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central nervous system (CNS)

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the brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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nerves

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nerual "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry incoming info from the sense receptors to the CNS

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interneurons

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CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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motor neurons

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the neurons that carry outgoing info from the CNS to the muscles and glands

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somatic nervous system

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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

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autonomic nervous system

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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (ex. heart). It's sympathetic division arouses; parasympathetic= calms

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sympathetic nervous system

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part of autonomic, arouses the body and mobilizes its energy in stressful situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

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part of autonomic, calms the body and conserves energy

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reflex

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a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

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neural networks

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interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

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lesion

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tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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electroencephalogram (EEG)

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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

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CT (computed tomography) scan

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a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body
AKA CAT SCAN

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PET (positron emission tomography) scan

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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

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brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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reticular formation

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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

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thalamus

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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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cerebellum

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the little brain attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

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limbic system

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a doughnut shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

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amygdala

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two almond shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

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hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities such as eating, drinking, body temp, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

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cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and info processing center

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glial glands

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cells in the nervous system that are not neurons but that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

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frontal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

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parietal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex

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occipital lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas. which receive visual info from the opposite visual field

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temporal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives the auditory info primarily from the opposite ear

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motor cortex

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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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sensory cortex

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the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

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association areas

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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather. they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

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aphasia

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impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (speaking) or to Wernicke's area (understanding).

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Broca's area

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an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

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Wernicke's area

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a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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plasticity

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the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

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corpus callosum

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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

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split brain

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a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers between them

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endocrine system

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the body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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hormones

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chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

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adrenal glands

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a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress

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pituitary gland

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the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

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chromosomes

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threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (has two strands- double helix- held together by bonds between pairs of nucleotides)

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genes

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the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

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genome

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the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes. The human genome has 3 billion weakly bonded pairs of nucleotides organized as coiled chains of DNA

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mutations

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random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity

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evolutionary psychology

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the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

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gender

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in psychology, the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

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behavior genetics

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the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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environment

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every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

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identical twins

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twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two identical organisms

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fraternal twins

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twins who develop from separate eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sister

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temperament

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a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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heritability

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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

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interaction

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the effect of one factor (ex. environment) depends on another factor (ex. heredity)

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molecular genetics

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the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of the genes

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norm

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accepted and expected behavior.

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personal space

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the zone around our bodies we like to maintain

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memes

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self-replicating ideas, fashion, and innovations passed from person to person

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X chromosome

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found in both men and women. females have two X's.

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Y chromosome

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found only in males.

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testosterone

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male sex hormone. both males and females have it, but more in males. stimulates growth of sex organs in the fetus and development of sex characteristics during puberty.

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role

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a set of norms about a social position

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gender role

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expected behaviors for males and females

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gender identity

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one's sense of being male or female

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gender-typing

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the acquisition of a traditional male or female role

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social learning theory

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and being rewarded or punished

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gender schema theory

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theory that children learn from their cultures concept of what it means to be male/female and that they adjust accordingly

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developmental psychology

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studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

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zygote

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the fertilized egg; 2 week period of rapid cell division

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embryo

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developing human organism; 2 weeks to 2 months

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fetus

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9 weeks to birth

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teratogens

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harmful agents that can reach the embryo or fetus during development

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by the mothers heavy drinking during pregnancy

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rooting reflex

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a baby's tendency to open mouth when touched on cheek, searching for nipple

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maturation

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biological growth processes that change behavior quite orderly, uninfluenced by experience

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schema

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framework that organizes and interprets info

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assimilation

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interpreting new experience into existing schemas

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accommodation

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adapting one's current schemas to fit new info

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cognition

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all mental activities dealing w/ thinking, knowing, and remembering

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sensorimotor stage

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Piaget, the stage which infants know the world in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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object permanence

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knowledge that things continue to exist even when not perceived

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preoperational stage

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Piaget, child learns to use language, but cant comprehend concrete logic

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conservation

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properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in it's form

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egocentrism

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Piaget, inability of preoperational child to take another's point of view

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theory of mind

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peoples ideas about their own and others mental states- their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and behavior these might predict

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concrete operational stage

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piaget, cognitive development during which children gain mental operations that allow them to think logically

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formal operational stage

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piaget, think logically about abstract concepts

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stranger anxiety

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the fear of strangers

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attachment

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emotional tie with person

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critical period

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optimal period shortly after birth which the exposure to certain stimuli can produce proper development

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imprinting

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process by which certain animals form attachments during critical period

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basic trust

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Erik Erikson, the thought that the world is trustworthy

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self-concept

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a sense of one's identity and self worth

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adolescence

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transition from childhood to adulthood

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menarche

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the first menstrual period

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menopause

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natural cessation of menstruation

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Alzheimers

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progressive & irreversable disorder, loss of memory

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cross-sectional study

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compare people of different ages

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longitudinal study

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study in which same people are studied over a long period of time

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crystallized intelligence

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increases with age; accumulated knowledge and verbal skills

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fluid intelligence

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one's ability to reason quickly and abstractly; decreases with age

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social clock

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culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement