Psychology 101

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Nervous System

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The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.

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Neuron

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A specialized cell of the nervous system that transmits messages.

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Glial cells

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Cells that nourish and insulate neurons, direct their growth, and remove waste products.

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Dendrites

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rootlike structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses from other neurons.

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Axon

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a long thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from branching structures called terminal buttons

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Myelin

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a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons facilitating transmission of neural impulses

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afferent neurons

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neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain. also called sensory neurons

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efferent neurons

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neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands. also called motor neurons

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Luigi Galvani (Neural Impulse)
"The body electric"

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Italian physicist Luigi Galvani found that wires used to electrically stimulate a frog’s nerve causes muscle contractions. Galvani got the idea that electrical stimulation may cause movement after observing that frog legs hanging from a metal wire twitched during an electrical storm.

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neural impulse

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the electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell or neuron

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polarize

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to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane

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resting potential

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the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons

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depolarize

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to reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts toward zero

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action potential

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the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron

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What happens when a neuron fires?

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Neurons fire (transmit messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands) by releasing neurotransmitters. They fire according to an all or none principle, up to hundreds of times per second. Each firing is followed by a refractory period.

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all-or-none principle

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the fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered

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refractory period

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a phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire

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synapse

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a junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron

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neurotransmitters

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chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another

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receptor site

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a location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive a neurotransmitter

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acetylcholine(ACh)

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a neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions

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hippocampus

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a part of the limbic system of the brain that is involved in memory formation

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dopamine

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a neurotransmitter that is involved in Parkinson’s disease and that appears to play a role in schizophrenia

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norepinephrine

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a neurotransmitter whose action is similar to that of the hormone epinephrine and that may play a role in depression

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serotonin

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a neurotransmitter, deficiencies of which have been linked to affective disorders, anxiety, and insomnia

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gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

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an inhibitory neurotransmitter that apparently helps calm anxiety

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endorphins

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neurotransmitters that are composed of amino acids and that are functionally similar to morphine

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nerve

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a bundle of axons from many neurons

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What are the parts of the nervous system?

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The nervous system consists of two main parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

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central nervous system

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the brain and spinal cord.

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the peripheral nervous system

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the part of the nervous system consisting of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

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somatic nervous system

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the division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system with sensory receptors, skeletal muscles, and the surface of the body

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autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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the division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and activities such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils

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sympathetic

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the branch of the ANS that is most active during emotional responses, such as fear and anxiety, that spend the body’s reserves of energy

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parasympathetic

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the branch of the ANS that is most active during processes (such as digestion) that restore the body’s reserves of energy

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spinal cord

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a column of nerves within the spine that transmits messages from sensory receptors to the brain and from the brain to muscles and glands throughout the body

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spinal reflex

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a simple unlearned response to a stimulus that may involve only two neurons

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gray matter

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the grayish neurons and neural segments that are involved in spinal reflexes

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white matter

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axon bundles that carry messages from and to the brain

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Wilder Penfield

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Penfield is most famous for his experiments where he electrically stimulated the brain of patients who had part of their skull removed during surgery to record what thoughts, behaviors and sensations arose from the excitation of specific parts of the cortex.

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electroencephalograph (EFG)

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a method of detecting brain waves by means of measuring the current between electrodes placed on the scalp

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computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scan)

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a method of brain imaging that passes a narrow X-ray beam through the head and measures structures that reflect the rays from various angles, enabling a computer to generate a three-dimensional image

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positron emission tomography (PET scan)

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a method of brain imaging that injects a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream and assesses activity of parts of the brain according to the amount of glucose they metabolize

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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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a method of brain imaging that places a person in a magnetic field and uses radio waves to cause the brain to emit signals that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which, in turn, indicate brain activity

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functional MRI (fMRI)

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a form of MRI that enables researchers to observe the brain “while it works” by taking repeated scans

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medulla

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an oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat and respiration

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pons

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a structure of the hindbrain involved in respiration, attention, and sleep and dreaming

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cerebellum

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the large mass of the forebrain, which consists of two hemispheres

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reticular activating system (RAS)

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a part of the brain involved in attention sleep and arousal

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Giuseppe Moruzzi & Horace Magoun

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Discovered that electrical stimulation of the reticular formation of a sleeping cat caused it to awaken at once.
But when the reticular formation was served from higher parts of the brain, the cat fell into a coma from which it would not awaken.

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James Old & Peter Milner

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In 1954, James Olds and Peter Milner discovered that a rat would press a bar to receive a brief impulse of electricity through an electrode implanted in certain areas of the brain. "pleasure center"

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medulla

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an oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat and respiration

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pons

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a structure of the hindbrain involved in respiration, attention, and sleep and dreaming

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cerebellum

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a part of the hindbrain involved in muscle coordination and balance

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reticular activating system (RAS)

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a part of the brain involved in attention sleep and arousal

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thalamus

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an area near the center of the brain involved in the relay of sensory information to the cortex and in the functions of sleep and attention

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hypothalamus

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a bundle of nuclei below the thalamus involved in body temperature, motivation, and emotion

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limbic system

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a group of structures involved in memory, motivation, and emotion that forms a fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum

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amygdala

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a part of the limbic system that apparently facilitates stereotypical aggressive responses

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cerebrum

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the large mass of the forebrain, which consists of two hemispheres

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cerebral cortex

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the wrinkled surface area (gray matter) of the cerebrum

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corpus callosum

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a thick fiber bundle that connects the hemispheres of the cortex

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Heinrich Kluver & Paul Bucy

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lesioned part of the amygdala of a rhesus monkey. Electrical stimulation of the part of the amygdala that kluver and bucy destroyed triggers a "rage response"

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What are the 3 major structures of the brain?

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medulla, pons, cerebellum

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What are the 4 parts of the cerebral cortex?

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The cerebral cortex has two hemispheres left and right. Each of the hemispheres is divided into four lobes: The four lobes of the human cerebral cortex are: occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and frontal lobe.

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What parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in thinking and language?

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The prefrontal region of the brain, this is the frontal lobes, near the forehead~ are the brains executive center. (Its where we solve problems and make decisions.)

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somatosensory cortex

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the section of cortex in which sensory stimulation is projected. It lies just behind the central fissure in the parietal lobe

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motor cortex

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the section of cortex that lies in the frontal lobe, just across the central fissure from the sensory cortex; neural impulses in the motor cortex are linked to muscular responses throughout the body

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aphasia

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a disruption in the ability to understand or produce language

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Wernicke's aphasia

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a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of spoken language

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Broca's aphasia

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a language disorder characterized by slow laborious speech

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epilepsy

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temporary disturbances of brain functions that involve sudden neural discharges

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What does it mean to be left or right brained?

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Left brained people are logical and intellectual.
Right brained people are intuitive creative & emotional.

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What happens when the brain is split in two?

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People who have undergone split brain operations wind up with having two brains, yet their behavior remains ordinary. Each hemisphere may have a "mind of its own"

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gland

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an organ that secretes one or more chemical substances such as hormones, saliva, or milk

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endocrine system

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the body’s system of ductless glands that secrete hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream

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pituitary gland

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the gland that secretes growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic hormone, and other hormones

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hormone

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a substance secreted by an endocrine gland that regulates various body functions

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pineal gland

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secretes the hormone melatonin which helps regulate the sleep wake cycle and may affect the onset of puberty.

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thyroid gland

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could be considered the bodys accelerator. It produces thyroxin, which affects the bodys metabolism~ the rate at which the body uses oxygen and produces energy.

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The testes and the ovaries

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produce steroids, among them testosterone and estrogen. testosterone is produced not only by the testes by also in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands.
ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone as well as small amounts of testosterone.

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adrenal glands

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located above the kidneys have an outer layer or cortex and an inner core or medulla. the adrenal cortex is regulated by the pituitary hormone ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)

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natural selection

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a core concept of the theory of evolution that holds that adaptive genetic variations among members of a species enable individuals with those variations to survive and reproduce

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mutation

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a sudden variation in an inheritable characteristic, as distinguished from a variation that results from generations of gradual selection

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evolutionary psychology

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the branch of psychology that studies the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behavior

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species

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a category of biological classification consisting of related organisms who are capable of interbreeding; homo sapiens—humans—make up one species

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instinct

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a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus and nearly identical among members of a species, even when they are reared in isolation

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heredity

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the transmission of traits from parent to offspring by means of genes

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genetics

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the area of biology that focuses on heredity

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Charles Darwin

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Evolution. The concept of a struggle for existence lies at the core of darwins theory of evolution.

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gene

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a basic unit of heredity, which is found at a specific point on a chromosome

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chromosome

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a microscopic rod-shaped body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that transmit hereditary traits from generation to generation; humans normally have 46 chromosomes

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DNA

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acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid, the substance that forms the basic material of chromosomes; it takes the form of a double helix and contains the genetic code

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polygenic

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referring to traits that are influenced by combinations of genes

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genotype

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one’s genetic makeup, based on the sequencing of the nucleotides we term A, C, G, and T

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phenotype

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one’s actual development and appearance, as based on one’s genotype and environmental influences

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nature

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the inborn, innate character of an organism

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nurture

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the sum total of the environmental factors that affect an organism from conception onward

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sex chromosomes

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the 23rd pair of chromosomes, whose genetic material determines the sex of the individual

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down syndrome

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a condition caused by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair and characterized by mental deficiency, a broad face, and slanting eyes

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monozygotic (MZ) twins

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twins that develop from a single fertilized ovum that divides in two early in prenatal development; MZ twins thus share the same genetic code; also called identical twins

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dizygotic (DZ) twins

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twins that develop from two fertilized ova and who are thus as closely related as brothers and sisters in general; also called fraternal twins

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What are kinship studies?

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kinship studies are ways in which psychologists compare the presence of traits and behavior patterns in people who are biologically related or unrelated to help determine the role of genetic factors in their occurrence

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What are adoption studies?

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adoption studies compare children who have been separated from their parents at an early age ( or in which identical twins are separated at an early age) and reared in different environments

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What are twin studies?

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twin studies compare the presence of traits and behavior patterns in MZ twins, DZ twins, and other people to help determine the role of genetic factors in their occurrence