Psychology 101

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the scientific study of mind and behavior

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psychology

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private inner experience

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mind

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observable actions of human being and nonhuman animals

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behavior

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Plato's theory that certan kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn

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nativism

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Aristotle's belief that the child's mind was a 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) on which experiences are written, and for this theory which holds that all knowledge is acquired through experience.

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philosophical empiricism

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Franz Joseph Gall developed this theory which held that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain.

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phrenology

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study of biological processes, especially in the human body
(german scientists)

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physiology

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sensory input from the environment

Helmholtz trained participants to respond when he applied this to their legs.

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stimulus

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the amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus.

Helmholtz discovered different amount of time on different parts of the body (shorter nerve travel distance to brain)

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reaction time

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a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind

Wilhelm Wundt's main study

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consciousness

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the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind.

Wundt's students and him.

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structuralism

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the subjective observation of one's own experience.

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introspection

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the study of purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment.
william james (consciousness is a flowing stream)

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functionalism

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Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likelu than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations.
Darwin's theory

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natural selection

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errors of perception, memory, or judgement in which subjective experience differs from objective reality

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illusions

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A psychological approach that amphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
'whole' in german

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Gestalt Psychology

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a condition that involves the occurence of two or more distinct identities within the same individual
ie- sybil

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dissociative identity disorder

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a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functins, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences

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hysteria

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the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions.

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unconscious

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sigmund freud's approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

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psychoanalytic theory

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a therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders.

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psychoanalysis

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an approach tounderstanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

ie- human aspirations

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humanistic psychology

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an approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable BEHAVIOR

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behaviorism

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an action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus

in_________ to bla bla bla

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response

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the consequences of a behavior that determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again.
ie- rat pressing bar

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reinforcement

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the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning.

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cognative psychology

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an approach to psychology that links pschological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
BN

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behavioral neuroscience

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a field that attemps to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
CN

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cognitive neuroscience

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asked questions about mental activity: consciousness and free will

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socrates

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father of medicine and psysiology, emphasized illness had a physical, rational cause

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hippocrates

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Socrates’ student. Ideas are innate. Concept of unchanging ideas that are inborn (i.e.- deities) known as ‘Nativism.’ Reasoning to arrive at truths.

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plato

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‘father of science’ based his search for truth on ‘philosophical empiricism.’ That is, that knowledge is acquired through experience.

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aristotle

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Cartesian plane, etc. humans are dualist (mind and body are separate entities), nativist (innate ideas of self, god, and math) but treated body as a machine.

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Rene Descartes

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humans are monist (mind and brain are one in the same: the mind is what the brain does)

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Thomas Hobbes

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Empiricist. The mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate, scraped tablet) nothing is inborn. Nature-nurture debate

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John Locke

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pioneers the use of reaction time to study the speed of nerve conduction in humans.

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Hermann von Helmholtz

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establishes psychology laboratory at U of Leipzig, Germany. Pioneers the use of introspection (thoughts can have sensory elements… consciousness is a manifold.) Introduces the perspective of structuralism (the structure of consciousness, the ‘elements’ of the mind)

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Wilhelm Wundt

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founds first American psychology lab based on Wundt’s work. Identifies 40,000

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Edward Titchener

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- at Harvard. Functionalism- studying how the mind works, mental operations, how the organism adapts to the environment heavily influenced by Darwin’s The Origin of Species and the concept of natural selection.

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William James

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promotes behaviorism, emphasizing the study of behavior (observable) rather than the mind (not observable), i.e.- white fuzzy bunny. Influenced by Ivan Pavalov.

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John Watson

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publishes “Studies of Hysteria” leading the psychoanalytic theory of personality (the unconsciousness) and Psychoanalysis, a method of therapy (free association).

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Sigmund Freud

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originally a greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation and now generally used to describe any attmpt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events.

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Empiricism

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a set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes, and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce
*the scientific ______________

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Method

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a desciption of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.
weight, speed, length: using these terms have one of these.

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Operational Definition

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any measurable quality that can vary or change. May be quantitative or qualitative
dependent and independent

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variable

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a system or method for assigning numbers to variables (or properties)

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measurement

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Whether the observation is a true measure of the variable. Construct ________ (meaningful), predictive _______(of other meaning)

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validity

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whether the observation or measurement can be repeated.

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reliability

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a testable statement, usually specifying a relationship between variables, often derived from a theory

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hypothesis

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an inter-related set of propositions about a phenomenon that is capable of generating hypothesis.

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theory

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uncontrolled, including bias and demand characteristics requiring double-blind experiments

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confounding variables

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statistical significance
a statistical LAW stating that as sample size increases, the attributes of a sample will more closely reflect the attributes of the population from which it was drawn.

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law of large numbers

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joint measurement of any two variables. A correlation may be positive (direct relationship), negative (inverse relationship), or zero (no relationship). Tests of achievement, aptitude or personality can be correlated with other variables: i.e. SAT vs. first year GPA.
not causation

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Correlation

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minimal risk, informed consent to withdraw, right to privacy and confidentiality

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ethical principals

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those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer wants them to behave.
supply and __________

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demand characteristics

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a method of gathering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively OBSERVING people in their NATURAL environments.

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naturalistic observation

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an observation whose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as well as from the participant.
2

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double-blind

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a CORRELATION ovserved between NATURALLY occuring variables

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natural correlation

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the fact that two variables may be correlated only because they are both caused by a third variable
ie- watching violent television, agressiveness, lack of adult supervision (3rd)

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third variable correlation

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an observational technique that involves matchin the average of the participants in the experimental and control groups in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (not indep) caused changes in the dependent variable
- controlled amount of adult supervision

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matched samples

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an observational technique that involves matching each participant in the experimental group with a specific paricipant in the control group in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable (and not the independent variable) caused changes int he dependent variable.
-different amounts of adult supervision

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matched pairs

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the fact that the casual relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the correlation between them because of the ever present possibility of third-variable correlation

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third variable problem

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most powerful method, but least like real life. Involves manipulation and control of variables

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experiment

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a characteristic of experimentation in which the researcher artificailly creates a pattern of variation in an independent variable in order to determine its casual powers. it usually results in the creation of an experimental group and a control group.

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manipulation

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manipulated

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independent variable

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measured

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dependent variable

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group that recieves treatment

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experimental group

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group that recieves no treatment

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control group

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the case in which a participants inclusion in the experimental or control group is not determined by a third variable

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self- selection

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a procedure to ensure that a participant's inclusion in the experimental or control group is not determined by a third variable

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randomization

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the characteristic of an experiment that allows one to draw accurate inferences about the casual relationship between an independent and dependent variable

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internal validity

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a characteristic of an experiment in which the independent and dependent variales are operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way

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external validity

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a hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the casual relationship between two or more properties. lead to hypotheses.

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theory

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a testable statement, usually specifying a relationship between variables, often derived from a theory

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Hypothesis

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a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

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random sampling

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a written agreement to participate in study made by a person who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.

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informed consent

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a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in the study

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debriefing

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cells in the nervous sytem that communicate with one another to perform information processing tasks

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neurons

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the part of a neuron that coordinates the information processing tasks, keeping the cell alive

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cell body

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the part of a neuron that receives information from the other neurons and relays it to the cell body

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dendrites

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the part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

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axon

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an insulating layer of fatty material

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myelin sheath

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support cells found in the nervous system

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glial cells

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the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dndrites of cell body of another

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sunapse

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neurons that receive information fom the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry signals fromt he spinal cord to the muscles to produce MOVEMENT

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motor neurons

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neurons that CONNECT sensory neurons, motor nerons, or other of these.

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interneurons

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the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

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resting potential

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an electric signal that is conducted alon an axon to a synapse

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action potential

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after action potential when resting potential restores, graph goes under
• toilet analogy: creates spike in water pressure in pipes.

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refractory period

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knoblike structures that branch out of an axon

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terminal buttons

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chemicals that transmit information across the synapse ot a recieving neuron's dendrites
long word

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neurotransmitters

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parts of the cell membrane that recieve the neurotransmitter and initiate a new electric signal

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receptors

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neuro-muscular junction. Hippocampus. Reduced production in Alzheimer’s disease. Attention, learning, memory, sleep.

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acetylcholine (ACH)

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similar to NE. motivation, arousal, mood. Excess in schizophrenia (thorazine and clozapine block receptors). L-dopa (for parkinsonism) increases dopamine levels

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dopamine

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facilatory, most common CNS. Learning and memory

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glutamate

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inhibitory at most synapses. Blocking these RECEPTORS causes convulsions

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GABA (gamma- aminobutyric acid)

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adrenaline. excitatory, affecting mood and arousal. Cocaine slows reuptake. Lithium speeds reuptake

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norepinephrine

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monoamine like NE and dopamine. Like NE, serotonin regulates mood. Hunger, arousal, aggressive behavior. Low levels cause depression (Prozac and Zoloft are serotonin uptake inhibitors).

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seratonin

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pain pathways and emotion

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endorphins

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drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

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agonists

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drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

literary villain

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antagonists

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an interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical info throughout the body

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nervous system

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brain and spinal cord. At least 10 billion neurons in the brain alone. Nerves encased in bone. Has no contact with real world.

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central nervous system

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the part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body's organs and tissues

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peripheral nervous system

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a set of nerves that conveys info to and out of the central nervous system
: motor and sensory. Bodily: runs out of head and spinal cord

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somatic nervous system

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set of nerves that controls organs

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autonomic nervous system

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a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in threatening situations

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sympathetic nervous system

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a set of nerves that help the body return to normal resting state

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parasympathetic nervous system

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simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions

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spinal reflexes

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an area of the brain that coorinates info coming in and out of spinal cord

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hindbrain

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an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

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medulla

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a brain structure that regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal

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reticular formation

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a large structure of the hindbrain that controls motor skills
smaller brain

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cerebellum

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a brain structure that relays info from cerebellum to rest of brain

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pons

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a part of the midbrain that orients an organism in the environment

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tectum

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a part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal

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tegmentum

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the outermost layer of the brain, visible, 2 hemispheres

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cerebral cortex

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areas of forebrain housed under c.c. near center of brain

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subortical structures

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subcortical structure that relays and filters info from senses and transmits info to c.c.

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thalamus

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a subcortical structure that regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior

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hypothalamus

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'master gland' of body's hormone producing system which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

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pituitary gland

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froup of forebrain structures including hypothalamus, the amygdala, and hippocampus, which are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory

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lymbic systm

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a structure critical to creating new memories and integrating them into the network so they can be stored indefiniately in other parts of c.c.

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hippocampus

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a part of lymbic system that plays central role in emotion and formation of memories

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amygdala

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a set of subcortial structures that directs intentional movements

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basal ganglia

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a thick band of nerve fibers that connects large areas of the c.c. on each side of the brain and supports communication of info across the hemispheres

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corpus callosum

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a region of the c.c. that processes visual info

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occipital lobe

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a region of the c.c. whose functions include processing info about touch

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pareital lobe

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a region of the c.c. responsible for hearing and language

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temporal lobe

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a region of the c.c. that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

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frontal lobe

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areas of the c.c.c that are composed of neurons that help provide a sense of meaning to info registered in the cortex

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association areas

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device used to record electrical activity in the brain

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electroencephalogram (eeg)

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brain imaging method using computer controlled x-rays of the brain

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computed tomography (ct)

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brain imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

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magnetic resonance imaging (mri)

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brain imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer complies color-coded image of the activity of the brain with tighter colors indicating more activity.

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position emission tomography (pet)