Psychology 100A

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memory

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the capacity to preserve and recover information

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encoding

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the processes that control the acquisition of information into memory

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storage

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the processes that determine how information is maintained over time

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retrieval

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the processes that control how information is recovered from memory and translated into performance

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Information-processing model of memory

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encoding
storage
retrieval

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sensory memory

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The capacity to preserve sensory information in a relatively pure, unanalyzed form for a very brief period

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short-term memory

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a limited capacity "working memory" system that people use to hold information, after it has been perceptually analyzed, usually for less than a minute; the system used to temporarily store, think about, and reason with new information and with information retrieved from long-term memory

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iconic memory

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The system that produces and stores visual sensory memories

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rehearsal

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A strategic process that helps maintain short-term memories through the use of internal repetition

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memory span

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The largest number of items that can reliably be recalled from short-term memory in their proper presentation order

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Chunking

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a short-term memory strategy that involves mentally rearranging many pieces of information into a familiar and meaningful pattern; a single chunck can represent a wealth of information

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long-term memory

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The system used to maintain information for extended periods, from several seconds to a lifetime

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episodic memory

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Remembering a particular past event or episode that happened to you personally, such as recalling having breakfast this morning or recollecting your high-school graduation ceremony

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semantic memory

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Knowledge about language and the world, retrieved as abstract facts or beliefs that make little or no reference to any particular episode in personal experience

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procedural memory

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memory for how to do things, such as ride a bike or swing a golf club

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Elaboration

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An encoding process that involves the formation of connections between to-be-remembered input and other information in memory

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Attention

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Selects certain information for further processing. We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information

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distinctiveness

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A term used to refer to how unique or different a memory record is, compared with other information in memory; distinctive memory records tend to be recalled well

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massed practice

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clustering repetitions of to-be-remembered information close together in time

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distributed practice

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spacing the repetitions of to-be-remembered information over time

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Sensory registers

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receive sensory information from external world (e.g. Our visual sensation of a classmate walking past us would be initially be in sensory registers).

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Attention

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process of selectively looking, listening, smelling, and feeling is called attention

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Semantic memory

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A definition of a key term is most likely to be stored in here. It is memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time.

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Flashbulb memories

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memories that concern events that are highly significant and are vividly remembered

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Where is the short-term memory located

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pre-frontal cortex

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Short-term memory capacity

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it can hold as much information that can be rehearsed in 1.5 - 2s

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Schemata

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beliefs or expectations based on past experiences. Incoming information is fit with existing schemata. Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event.

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Encoding in long-term memory

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most information is encoded in terms of meaning, some information is stored verbatim, and some information can be encoded in nonverbal images

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emotional memories

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learn emotional responses to various stimuli

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procedural memories

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motor skills and habits

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Explicit memory

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memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having, and this information can be intentionally recalled

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Implicit memory

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Procedural memories, practiced memories. Memories we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having; cannot be intentionally retrieved

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How are memories formed

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Changes in synaptic connections among neural cells, called long-term potentiation

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Retroactive interference of forgetting

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A process in which the information of new memories hurts the retrieval of old memories (e.g filling out a job application Seth can only remember his most recent address, not the one before it.

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Proactive interference of forgetting

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Old memories interfere with the retrieval of new memories (e.g. Bruce acted in a high school production of Hamlet, and he now finds it difficult to memorize Macbeth).

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Situational factors of experience and forgetting

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recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information as learned

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State-dependent memory of experience and forgetting

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recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned

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Reconstruction of experience and forgetting

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memories can be altered with each retrieval

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Decay theory (the biology of forgetting)

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memories deteriorate, because of passage of time

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Amnesia (the biology of forgetting)

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memory loss caused by accidents, surgery, poor diet, or disease

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Retrograde amnesia (the biology of forgetting)

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loss of memory from prior to an accident or injury

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Global amnesia

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unable to form new memories and do not have many memories of past events (anterograde amnesia + retrograde amnesia)

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forgetting

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the loss in accessibility of previously memory information

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anterograde amnesia

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memory loss for events that happen after the physical injury

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prosopagnosia

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sometimes known as face blindness) is a disorder of face perception where the ability to recognize faces is impaired, while the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively intact

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Extraordinary memory

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includes eidetic imagery (photographic memory). Usually due to well developed memory techniques

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Flashbulb memory

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Vivid memories of dramatic events. May occur because of strong emotional content.

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eyewitness testimony

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shown to be unreliable, people's recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or imagined

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Recovered memories

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involves the recall of long-forgotten dramatic events, may be the result of suggestion, some evidence that memories can be repressed and recalled later

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Language

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communication by voice in the distinctively human manner, using arbitrary sounds in conventional ways with conventional meanings; speech. Many different forms (e.g. speaking, body language, sign language

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Communication

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the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs

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semantics

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linguistics .

the study of meaning.
the study of linguistic development by classifying and examining changes in meaning and form.

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Syntax vs grammar

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Syntax rules and procedures for combining words to form sentences. Grammar includes syntax, but it is defined as the rules of language that allow the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols in an infinite number of ways to convey meaning

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Morpheme

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the smallest units of language that carry meaning, most or single words, such as cool or hip, but prefixes and suffixes are also morphemes. For example cool contains a single morpheme while uncool contains two

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Three purposes of language

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Give information, ask for information, give order / directive

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Semantics

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the meaning of language

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Syntax

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specific rules within a particular language for combining words to form sentences

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Grammar

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Taking the words and putting them together in a way that is meaningful

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morpheme

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smallest unit of meaning (e.g cat has one morpheme, cats has two morpheme)

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phoneme

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smallest unit of sound (e.g. cat has three phonemes, and cats has four)

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hippocampus

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part of the brain involved in storage and formation of memories

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amygdala

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believed to be involved in emotionally charged memories

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Thinking

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The process that underlies the mental munipulation of knowledge, ideas, and images, often in the attempt to reach a goal such as solve a problem.

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linguistic relativity hypothesis

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the proposal the language determines the characteristics and content of thought

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limbic system

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involved in memory, emotional, and smell

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Serial Position effect

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People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recovery effect) in a list. Demonstrates how short and long term memory work together. Primacy effect reflects short-term memory

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Example of deductive reasoning

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Boats float, a yacht is a boat; therefore, a yacht can float (reasoning from general to particular, or from cause to effect)

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Inductive reasoning

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Reasoning from general facts to specific principles (e.g. the wooden boat floats, the wooden block floats, the wooden cup floats; therefore, wood must float). You can see how this might be an error prone process --maybe you form the wrong conclusion.

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Jean Piaget

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says cognition comes first then language

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cognition

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process of thought

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Lev Vygotsky

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with the development of language comes the development of cognition

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cognition

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process of thought

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Lev Vygotsky

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with the development of language comes the development of cognition

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Phonological loop

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Like the inner voice stores word sounds

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Visuospatial sketchpad

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stores visual and spatial information

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Central execution

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Determines which mechanism to use, coordinates among them

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Cue dependence

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Failure to remember is caused by a lack of appropriate cues (e.g. Although Kyra would be able recognize the definition of semantic memory on a multiple choice test she would not be able to write the definition in a fill-in-the-blank test).