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163 Cards in this Set

  • Front
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learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved
- memory
3 stages of forming memory
- sensory, short term, long term
the immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
- sensory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly such as the seven digits of a phone# while dialing before info is stored or forgotten
- short term
relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system, includes knowledge, skills and experiences
- long term
[うつし]
unconscious encoding of incidental info such as space, time & frequency, and of well-learned info such as word meaning
- automatic processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
- effortful processing
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
- serial position effect
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
- imagery
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
- mnemonics
[（をつかむ）]
organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically
- chunking
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
- iconic memory (fleeting photographic memory, few tenths of a second, our eyes register an exact representation of a scene and we can recall any part of it)
a momentary sensory memory of audiory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
- echoic memory (impeccable, though fleeting, memory for auditory stimuli)
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (like the 9/11)
- flashbulb memory
the loss of memory
- amnesia (unable to form new memories)
[うむ]
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
- LTP (Long-Term Potentiation)
area of brain where we consolidate memories, a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage
- hippocampus
retention independent of conscious recollection (called nondeclarative memory)
- implicit memory (can learn how to do something)
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
(declarative memory)
- explicit memory (but they may not know and declare that they know)
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
- recall
[うらがえし]
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
- recognition
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subsconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
- deja vu
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
- mood-congruent memory
three sins of forgetting:
1. absent-mindedness - inattention to details lead to encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we lay down
the car keys)
2. transience - storage decay over time (after we part ways with former classmates, unused information fades)
3. blocking - inaccessibility of stored information (seeing an actor in an old movie, we feel the name on the
tip of our tongue but experience retrieval failure - we cannot get it out.)
three sins of distortions:
1. misattribution - confusing the source of information (putting words in someone else's mouth or remembering
a dream as an actual happening)
2. suggestibility - the lingering effects of misinformation (a leading question - Did Mr. Jones touch your private
parts? - later becomes a young child's false memory)
3. bias - belief-colored recollections (current feelings toward a friend may color our recalled initial feelings)
unwanted memories (being haunted by images of a sexual assault)
- persistence
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
- proactive interference (e.g. new phone#, your memory of the old one may interfere)
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
- retroactive interference (like a second stone tossed in a pond, disrupting the waves rippling out from a first )
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishess from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
- repression
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
- source amnesia (at the heart of many false memories)
our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances
- adaptability
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
- learning
learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning), or a response
and its consequences (operant conditioning)
- associative learning
we learn by association. our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.
- true
hat is the process of learning associations
- conditioning (classical & operant)
conditioning where we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events
- classical conditioning (e.g. we learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crack of thunder, so we start to brace ourselves when lightning flashes nearby)
a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned
stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
- classical conditioning (also called Pavlovian or respondend conditioning)
onditioning where we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequences and thus to repeat acts
followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results
- operant conditioning (e.g. response: fish balancing a ball, consequence: receiving food, behavior strengthened)
earning from others' experiences and examples
- observational learning
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference; to mental processes. Most research psychologist today agree with (1) but not with (2)
- behaviorism
4 factors of classical conditioning
before conditioning - us, ur / NS, No salivation
during conditioning - NS, US, UR
after conditioning - CS, CR
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically triggers a response
- unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), suck as salivation when food is in the mouth
- unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US),
comes to trigger a conditioned response
- conditioned stimulus (CS)
. in classical conditionng, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned stimulus)
- conditioned response (CR)
[えき]
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
- generalization
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal
an unconditioned stimulus
- discrimination
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
- shaping (e.g. food as reinforcers that gradually guide an animal's actions toward a desired behavior)
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
- respondent behavior
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
- operant conditioning
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
- operant behavior
a chamber, also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer,
with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
- operant chamber
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
- reinforcer
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food
- positive reinforcement (any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response)
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
- negative reinforncement (any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. e.g. fastening seatbelt to turn off beeping)
[えんしゅつ]
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
- primary reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer
- conditioned reinforcer
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
- latent learning
desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake
- intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
- extrinsic motivation
learning by observing others
- observational learning
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
- modeling
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain's mirroring of
another's actio may enable imitation and emphaty
- mirror neurons
positive, constructive, helpful behavior.
- prosocial behavior (e.g. models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. people who exemplify nonviolent, helpful behavior can prompt similar behavior in others)
oppositve of prosocial. how abusive parents might have aggressive children and why many men who beat their wives had wife-battering fathers.
- antisocial
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
- consciousness
time, person, place, situation
- orientation
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
- selective attention
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for ex. of temp. and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
- circadian rhythm
the irresistible tempter to whom we inevitably succum. the equalizer of presidents and peasants. sweet, renewing, mysterious.
- sleep
stages of sleep
stage 1 - experience fantastic images, resembling hallucinations - sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus
- have a sensation of falling (at which moment your body may suddenly jerk) or of floating weightlessly. such hypnagogic
sensations may later be incorporated into memories.
stage 2 - 20 mins after stage 1, you relax more and begin stage 2 - characterizes by the periodic appearance of sleep spindles -
bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity. (sleeptalking can occur)
stage 3 - large, slow delta waves, hard to awaken
stage 4 - stage when children have at least one episode of sleepwalking.
rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep,
because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
- REM sleep
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
- alpha waves
periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinc from unconsiousness resulting from coma, general anesthesia,
or hibernation.
- sleep
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
- hallucinations
5 types of hallucinations
1. Auditory: The false perception of sound, music, noises, or voices.
2. Gustatory: A false perception of taste.
3. Olfactory hallucination: A false perception of odor or smell.
4. Somatic/tactile hallucination: A false perception or sensation of touch or something happening in or on the body.
5. Visual hallucination: A false perception of sight.
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
- delta waves
4 types of sleep disorders
insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors
not an occasional inability to sleep when anxious or excited, but persistent problems in falling or staying asleep
- insomnia
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep,
often at inopportune times
- narcolepsy (from narco - numbness, lepsy - seizure)
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
- sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified, unlike nightmares, night terrors
occurs during stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
- night terrors
night terrors vs nightmares
- night terrors (no recollection of the episode) while nightmares ( recall episode / bad dreams)
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.
- dream
notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional
acceptance of the content and later difficultie remembering it
- dream
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
- manifest content (obvious) (incorporates traces of previous days' nonsexual experiences and preoccupations
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
- latent (symbolic meaning - to satisfy our own wishes)
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
- dissociation
compulsive drug craving and use
- addiction
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
- psychoactive drug
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
- tolerance
he discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
- withdrawal
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued
- physical dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
- psychological dependence
3 categories of psychoactive drugs
- depressants, stimulants, hallucinogen
rugs that reduce or calm neural activity and slow body functions
- depressants (alcohol, opiates (morphine/heroin), barbiturates (tranquilizer))
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
- barbiturates (tranquilizer, Nembutal, Seconal, Amytal)
drugs with derivatives morphine/heroin, depress neural activity, temporary lessening pain and anxiety
- opiates
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
- stimulants (caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy)
amphetamine and methamphetamine are almost the same except methamphetamine appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. they are powerfully addictive drugs that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
- true
drug that is a fast track from euphoria to crash. it depletes the brain's supply of the neurotransmitters dopamine,
serotonin, and norepinephrine
- coccaine
street name for MDMA is both a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen
- ecstasy
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
- hallucinogens
father of psychoanalysis
- sigmund freud (unconscious - sexual & aggressive drives)/ philosophy
father of metacognitive
- skinner
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- psychology
the long standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of
psychological traits and behaviors. today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction
of nature and nurture
- nature-nurture issue
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
- biopsychosocial approach
the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that one would have foresen it
- hindsight bias (i-knew-it-all-along)
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
- critical thinking
a self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature's answers.
- scientific method (theory -> hypothesis -> research and observations)
an explaination using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
- theory
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
- hypothesis
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
- case study
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.
- survey
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study(note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country;s whole population)
- population
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
- random sample
observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
- naturalistic observation
branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments
as well as psychological theraphy
- psychiatry
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- psychology
a branch of science that assists people with problems in living, often related to school, work or marriage and in achieving greater well-being
- counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorder
- clinical psychology
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders, practiced by physiciams
. The simplest way to describe the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist is that a psychologist primarily aids the depressed patient by counseling and psychotherapy. A psychiatrist may also perform psychotherapy; but, in addition, can prescribe medications and perform ECT (electroconvulsive therapy). A psychiatrist is a medical doctor. A psychologist may hold a doctoral degree (Ph.D.) and be called "doctor"; but, is not a medical doctor (M.D.).
- true
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
- correlation
the mathematical expression of the relationships, ranging from -1 to 1.
- correlation coefficient
indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together
- positive correlation bet 0 and 1
indicates an inverse relationship
- negative correlation bet 0 and -1
the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
- culture
a study method incorporating five steps: survey, questions, read, rehearse, review
- SQ3R
father of psychoanalysis- unconscious (sexual aggressive drives) - psychodynamic/psychoanalytic
- sigmund freud
father of metacognitive (behaviorism)
-
skinner
worked with Little Albert, championed psychology as the sciece of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby
- watson/rayner
pleasure seeking (wants to engage in illicit relationship/doesnt care/ impulsive/wants what it wants now)
- id
reality, you can get caught and be in trouble
- ego
ideals, morals, higher ethical reasoning, it's wrong
- superego
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
- neuron
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pas to other neurons or to muscles or glands
- axon
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
- dendrite
Each neuron is itself a miniature decision-making device performing a complex calculations as it receives signals from hundreds or
even thousands of other neurons. most of these signals are excitatory, others are inhibitory. if excitatory signals minus inhibitory
signals exceed a min intensity or threshold, the combined signal trigger an action potential. increasing the level of stimulation
above the threshold, however will not increase the neural impulse's intensity. the neuron reaction is an all-or-none response
- true
morhphine within - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
- endorphine
enables muscle action, learning and memory (Alzhemeir)
- Ach
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pas to other neurons or to muscles or glands
- axon
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
- dendrite
Each neuron is itself a miniature decision-making device performing a complex calculations as it receives signals from hundreds or
even thousands of other neurons. most of these signals are excitatory, others are inhibitory. if excitatory signals minus inhibitory
signals exceed a min intensity or threshold, the combined signal trigger an action potential. increasing the level of stimulation
above the threshold, however will not increase the neural impulse's intensity. the neuron reaction is an all-or-none response
- true
morhphine within - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
- endorphine
enables muscle action, learning and memory (Alzhemeir)
- Ach
influences movememnt, learning, attention and emotion (excess-schizophrenia, starved - parkinson)
- dopamine
affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal (undersupply - depression)
- serotonin
helps control alertness and arousal (depress)
- norepinephrine
. major inhibitory neurotransmitter (undersupply-tremor, seizures, insomnia)
- GABA
major excitatory neurotransmitter, involve in memory
- glutamate
a neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrin system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion
- hypothalamus
functions of hypothalamus
1. hunger 2. thirst 3. temperature 4. cyclical sex hormones 5. pleasure reward center
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
- frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear, receives sensory input for touch and body position
- parietal lobes
lying at the back of the head, includes visual areas, each receiving information from the opposite visual field
- occipital
lying above the ears, includes the auditory areas
- temporal lobes
responsible for consolidation of memory
- hippocampus
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca's area(impaired speaking) or to wirnicke's area (impaired understanding)
- aphasia
controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemispher that directs muscle movements involved in speech
- broca's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression, usually the left temporal
- wernicke's area
connects the left and right hemispher, allows them to communicate
- corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemisphers and carrying messages between them
- corpus callosum