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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Mode of a distribution
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Most frequently occurring score in the distribution
--a distribution may be unimodal, bimodal, trimodal |
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Median of a distribution
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Score that splits the distribution exactly in half
--commonly used as index of central tendency in a distribution that has outliers or lonely scores falling a long way from center of gravity |
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Mean
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Average of the scores in the distribution
--every number must contribute to the measure |
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Variance
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The average squared deviation from the mean of each score in the distribution
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Why can we not use the simple average of deviations?
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Because these will by definition add up to zero
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Standard deviation
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Square root of the variance
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Range
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Different between the lowest and highest score
ex) 9-4=5 |
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What happens to the curve if there is a high variance?
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The curve will be very spread out
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Percentile ranking
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Tells us the place the score falls in the parent distribution, providing part of the context needed to understand meaning of a score
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What does a higher z score mean?
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A more positive percentile ranking
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Z-scores
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Indicates distance of a score from mean in SD units
ex)Given z-score mean of 0: --z-score of +1 falls 1 SD above the mean -z-score of -2 falls 2 SD below the mean --z-score of 0 falls right at the mean |
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Z-score formula
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X-M
Z= ------ SD x=raw score, m=mean of parent distribution, SD=sd of parent distribution |
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Psychological Test
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Objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior; used to predict other behavior; gather important imformation about the test-taker
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Where were the earliest psychological tests found?
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The Chinese Empire about 2000 years ago but roots of testing can be traced to 19th century attempts to measure intelligence
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WHO developed the modern psychological tests to study error?
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Wundt & Error
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What happened to psychology in the mid-1800s?
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It broke away from philosophy and began focusing on studying contents of the mind
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What did Wundt hope to do in his psychological lab?
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In Germany he hoped to formulate general laws of behavior, just as physics and chemistry had discovered general laws of matter
--basic elements of consciousness bc he wanted to hinder thought |
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What was unfortunate for Wundt?
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There were always variations from one person to another no matter how many times he standardized the procedures
--individual differences |
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Francis Galton
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Interested in "geniuses" -intelligence; said they ran in families
-faced problems that there wasnt a mathematical test to measurements--correlational statisitcs --also no tests available to objectively measure intelligence so he developed one --empiricists belief |
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James Cattall
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Left America to study under Wundt but later met Galton and was influenced by his ideas on intelligence; after returning to the u.s he opened a psych lab that focused on objective mental tests--mostly measured sensory and reactions
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What did Cattall's tests fail to show?
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Construct validity; his measurements failed to correlate with GPA's, teacher ratings and other forms of intelligence but he did lay the groundwork for future tests
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Alfred Binet
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Frenchman, also interested in intelligence; identifying mentally retarded children
--proposed direct evaluation --his tests from both years correlated with other alternative measurements of intelligence demonstrating construct validity |
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Louis Terman
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American Prof at Stanford-trained with Binet brought the test back to Stanford and revised it. It is not called the Stanford-Binet; intelligence test that measured IQ's specifically to test mentally retarded intelligence levels
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What was developed and used in World War 1?
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Group intelligence tests were used bc the Stanford Binet could not be used since one of the requirements is that examinees be tested one at a time
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What is psychology sometimes characterized as?
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The study of human behavior
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What is psychology dependent on? (like chem, physics, geology)
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Measurement
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What are constructs?
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Abstract, inferred organizing principles thought to determine behaviors of interest; must always be inferred from observable data
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Examples of constructs
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Intelligence, personality
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When observing constructs, what are psychologists most interested in?
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In assessing UNDERLYING constructs, which are assumed to determine observed behavior but cannot be directly measured
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What are constructs always inferred from?
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Observable data
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Are psychologists operating at a disadvantage compared to other scientists?
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Yes bc they are interested in a phenomena that aren't directly measurable
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What does the classical test theory emphasize?
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There are no perfect tests, every test score determined to some extent by error
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In classical theory tests what are they trying to determine?
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Not if there is error present but HOW MUCH error is present
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Standardization
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A way to minimize error; aimed at minimizing differences among examinations; test should be administered and scored in the exact same way across different examinees and examiners
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Controlling Test Materials
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2nd way to minimize errors; minimize exposure to test manuel; but to purchase test manuel, many qualifications must be met-intended for examiners only
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What should the examiner do before tests to minimize error?
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Memorize instructions, check and prepare stimulus materials, post signs to prevent interruptions; create te best test environment possible-temperature, lighting, etc; minimize test anxiety, remain alert
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Most important key point that must be grasped in statistics
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A test score is meaningless in isolation
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What are statistics used to describe?
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Distributions of numbers as well as the rank of any single test score in that distribution
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"Skewed"
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Asymmetrical distributions and have different names depending on direction of their symmetry
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Positively skewed
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Pointing to the high end-right end; scores piling up at the low end; add easy items
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Negatively skewed
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Pointing to the low end-left end; scores piling up at the high end; add hard items
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Ceiling effect
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High end; interpreted as indicating that test is unable to make fine discriminations at high end
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Floor effect
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Low end, interpreted as indicating the measurement procedure is unable to make fine discriminations at the low end
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Central Tendency
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provides information about the center of gravity of a distribution; mean, median, mode
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Dispersion
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Provides information about where the scores fall away from the central tendency of a distribution--how tightly scores clump or fall away from central tendency; range, variance, standard deviation
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Percentile rank
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EX) percentile rank of 50 means that 50% of scores from a normal distribution fall below score with that percentile rank-high percentile rank is good; percentage of scores in istribution that fall below a given score
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How do we determine the percentile rank?
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If we know how far above/below the mean the score falls in standard deviation units, we can determine the percentage of scores that fall below our score
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Standard Scores
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Transformations of raw, original scores; all standard scores exoress distance of raw score from mean of parent distribution in standard deviation units; Zscore
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Z scores
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Indicate distance of a score from mean in SD units
=given the z-score mean of 0 and SD of 1: zscore of plus 1 falls 1 sd above mean zscore of -2 falls two sd below mean zscore of 0 falls right at the mean |
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What do z scores provide?
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A common language to compare scores from different distributions
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Bivariate statistics
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Correlations-describing two or more distributions or variables; ex)hours spent studying and scores on midterm
-plot /graph data |
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Correlation coefficient
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Allows us to quantify the relationship between two variables; weakest correlation=0; 100=perfect positive correlation
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Statistical Significance
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Given this many subjects and the size correlation, what is the probability that obtaining these results due to chnce alone (if there is no real relationship present) --if you have alot of subjects it isnt hard to real statistical significance
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Does the thresold required to obtain statistical significance vary by subject number?
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Yes
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When examining a correlation, what else must the reviewer check?
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Not only statistical sig but also magnitude or strength of the correlation--AKA square the correlation coefficient which tells us the percent linear variance shared by the two variables
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Along with correlations being used as a tool to see a relationship between two variables, they can also....
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...Predict one variable from another-never interested in the test score itself, interested in what can be predicted from the test score
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Best-Fit regression Line
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line determined to result iin least possible distance from itself and 8 data points
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When working to zscores, what is the slope of the best first regression line?
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Correlation coefficient
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How do we predict scores using the best fit regression line?
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We move from z score of variable x on horizontal axis, vertically to regression line, then from regression line to horizontal axis to find predicted y value
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Standard Error of the Estimate
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The square root of the average distance from the line
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What represents error?
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The length from the points to the line; we want points to fall close to the line bc that minimizes error
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Normative Groups
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Should be large (to minimize sampling error)& representative of individuals who will actually be give psychological test in question
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What are the three categories normative groups usually fall into?
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Developmental, within group, criterion referenced
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Developmental Norms
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Usually for children and recently with 60+; cognitive abilities vary considerably around these types of lifespans (dementia, or children getting smarter, etc)
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Longitudinal Designs
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When all individuals are followed and tested across period in question--they are expensive and rarely used bc ppl drop out; ideally used to normative groups
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Cross Sectional Design
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Different groups at selected ages are tested with results presumably showing the developmental change in question
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Developmental Norms: grade equivalents
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Grade equivalents are similar to age norms except use school grade as metric; grade equivalents suffer from same limitation as noted in mental age
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Developmental Norms: ordinal scale
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Capitalizing on different stages-step by step occurring in the same order; objects are assigned a numeral that indicate a ranking or ordering; for example football teams are ranked 1,2,3,4...25, etc
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Advantages/disadvantages of developmental norms
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Advantage:readily understandable by laypersons; use intuitively appealing concepts
Disadvantages:units may fluctuate across developmental periods(mental ages); hard to work with statistically; misleading |
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Within Groups Norms
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Most common strategy; should be large and representative; looks at changes in behavior across different treatments; large percentile rankings-not good so, standard scores are preferred bc they decrease the problem; comparable to standardization groups
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Criterion Referenced Tests
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They give meaning to test performance by describing what test takers could actually do; used in a descriptive way to give useful performance info-similar to ordinal developmental scale but no strict progression implied
--mose useful where knowledge or performance may be thoroughly classified and described; for ex)driving test, high school math can do specific problems; not abstract-writing etc |
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Local Norms
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Normative data derived from a specific setting
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Issues in Norms
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Tests differ in content even if they have similar names; tests may measure the same thing operationally but not interchangeably; not perfectly correlated with beck depression scale
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Dorthea Dix
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Crusader for improvement in hospital conditions; humanitarian
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Horace Mann
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Founder of the formal school board; most influential educator- drastic improvement for the way we evaluate students
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Charles Spearman
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"Two-factor theory of intelligence"; number cruncher; fist attempt at an empirically based theory of human intelligence; mathematical; mental measurements
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What are the five major categories we classify tests?
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Mental, achievement, personality, intelligence, neuropsychological
MAPIN |
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What are the three fundamental questions in testing relate to?
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Reliability-the stability of a measure
Validity- what a test really measures Norms- the framework for interpreting test scores |
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Developmental norms: nominal scale
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simply distinguishes objects from one another; for examples males:0 females:1, or numbers on basketball jerseys
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Developmental norms: interval scale
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places objects in order and does so with equal intervals, no true zero point; for example-thermometer-0 degrees does not indicate the complete absence of heat; psych measurements usually done with interval and ordinal scales
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Developmental norms: ratio
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Has a true zero point and places objects in order-length and weight
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What did Freud later conclude about hypnosis?
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That it was not needed to get therapeutic results
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Freud's two methods for understand the conscious and unconscious
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Free association and dream analysis
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Free Association
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Have patients talk freely about themselves thus providing info about their feelings, thoughts, motives, etc
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Dream Analysis
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Patients record and describe their dreams;
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What happens to the consciousness and unconsciousness during dreams?
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The break between the two is weakened unconscious materials come through-still somewhat guarded so meaning is disguised
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Oral stage-psychosocial
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Birth-18months, the child's main need is food--therefore the mouth, lips, and tongue are the infants libido (gives pleasure)
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Anal stage-psychosocial
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18 months -3 years; libido is anal and urinary sphincter muscles; child learns pleasure to with-hold and expel poopy!
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Phallic stage-psychosocial
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3-6 years; pleasure comes from genitals
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Latency stage-psychosocial
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6-12 years-calm; children consolidate psychological and interpersonal lessons they have learned
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Genital stage-psychosocial
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Puberty; child learns pleasures and dangers of adult sexuality
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What must happen during each of the psychosocial stages?
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The growing person must resolve conflicts between what the Id wants and what the environment can offer
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What might problems during the Oral stage lead to?
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Overly optimistic, narcissism, gullibility, demandingness, dependency
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What is the MOST important development crisis?
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Occurs in the Phallic stage around age four in little boys-Oedipus Complex-boy fantasizes about sex with mother and simultaneous feelings of jealousy and rage toward father
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Castration anxiety
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Boy loves his penis so much (source of power and strength) so he must repress feelings about his mother
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How is the Oedipus complex resolved?
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By identifying with the father and adopting the societies rules which forbid relations with a mother
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Electra Complex
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Girl realizes she has no penis so wants to possess her father to gain the penis
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How is electra complex resolved?
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When she realizes she can eventually have a baby one day which will substitute a penis
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What will happen if complexes are unresolved?
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Lead to guilt about sexual desires, fears of intimacy or other difficulties developing relationships
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Regression
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You avoid thoughts and feelings from the past by returning to a psychologically earlier less painful time
ex)A man whose self esteem has been shattered returns to a childlike "show off" behavior |
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Displacement
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You take out hostile pent-up feelings on object less dangerous than those that caused the feelings
ex)Man hates his boss so comes home and kicks the dog |
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Fixation
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Attaching oneself in an unreasonable or exaggerated way to some person
ex) an unmarried middle age man still relies on his mother to provide the most basic needs |
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Repression
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Putting thoughts and feelings into unconsciousness; repressed memories, child molestation; comes out as dreams or slits of the tongue etc
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Identification
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You defend against threatening feelings aroused by the behavior of another person by experiencing a strong link with that person
ex)oedipus complex |
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Projection
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You attribute your unacceptable motives or characteristics on others
ex) you like a person a lot but your friends disapprove so you say he likes me |
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Reaction formation
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You prevent the expression of unacceptable desires by adopting the opposite behavior
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Sublimation
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You transform psychological energy associated with threatening or aggressive feelings into socially acceptable pursuits such as art, music, politics, or intellectual activities
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Rationalization
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You use contrived explanations for how you conceal and disguise inworthy motives for behavior
ex)A racist uses passages from the bible to explain motives towards minorities |
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Problems with defense mechanisms?
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Can't prove it!
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Behavioral Model
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John Watson-goal of psychology was to predict and control behavior; psych should be like science and physics; no need for introspection or study of unconsciousness
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Observational Learning
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We learn behavior by watching others
ex)mother afraid of snakes so we are afraid of snakes |
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Problems with behavioral method
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Not everything is learned, biology plays a role too so you can't always "unlearn" behavior
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Cognitive-Behavioral Model
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The way you think has something to do with developing a mental disorder; no hidden drives or motives but must work on the way a person thinks to fix psychopathology
ex)not enough just to stop depressing behaviors-need to work on thoughts too |
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Biopsychosocial Model
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Need to consider all relevant factors--biology (neurotransmitters,genes)
social factors(racial, social tensions) contextual factors (family, work, poverty) cultural factors(generations) psychological factors (relationship, learning) demographic factors (age, gender, race) |
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What neurotransmitter most implicated with OCD?
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SSRI's block re-uptake of serotonin
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What dies agoraphobia grown from?
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Panic Disorders
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Problems with behavioral method
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Not everything is learned, biology plays a role too so you can't always "unlearn" behavior
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Cognitive-Behavioral Model
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The way you think has something to do with developing a mental disorder; no hidden drives or motives but must work on the way a person thinks to fix psychopathology
ex)not enough just to stop depressing behaviors-need to work on thoughts too |
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Biopsychosocial Model
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Need to consider all relevant factors--biology (neurotransmitters,genes)
social factors(racial, social tensions) contextual factors (family, work, poverty) cultural factors(generations) psychological factors (relationship, learning) demographic factors (age, gender, race) |
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What neurotransmitter most implicated with OCD?
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SSRI's block re-uptake of serotonin
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What dies agoraphobia grown from?
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Panic Disorders
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Problems with behavioral method
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Not everything is learned, biology plays a role too so you can't always "unlearn" behavior
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Cognitive-Behavioral Model
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The way you think has something to do with developing a mental disorder; no hidden drives or motives but must work on the way a person thinks to fix psychopathology
ex)not enough just to stop depressing behaviors-need to work on thoughts too |
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Biopsychosocial Model
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Need to consider all relevant factors--biology (neurotransmitters,genes)
social factors(racial, social tensions) contextual factors (family, work, poverty) cultural factors(generations) psychological factors (relationship, learning) demographic factors (age, gender, race) |
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What neurotransmitter most implicated with OCD?
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SSRI's block re-uptake of serotonin
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What dies agoraphobia grown from?
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Panic Disorders
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Personality disorder goes on which axis?
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DSM 2
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Three most important things to consider in Disgnostic system?
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Reliability, validity, bias
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Wake up in the middle of the night, heart racing, hot and cold?
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B. panic attack
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Treatment choice for PTSD?
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Imagine exposure
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