Psychological Terms From Chapters 5 -7

Front 1

Sensation

Back 1

the process of receiving stimulus energies from the environment

Front 2

Transduction

Back 2

process of transforming physical energy into electrochemical energy

Front 3

Perception

Back 3

the brain’s process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning

Front 4

Bottom-up processing

Back 4

processing that begins with sensory receptors registering environmental information and sending it to the brain for analysis and interpretation

Front 5

Top-down processing

Back 5

processing of perceptual information that starts out with cognitive processing at the higher level of the brain

Front 6

Sensory receptors

Back 6

specialized cells that direct stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain

Front 7

Psychophysics

Back 7

the field that studies links between the physical properties of stimuli and a person’s experience of them

Front 8

Absolute threshold

Back 8

the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect

Front 9

Noise

Back 9

irrelevant and competing stimuli

Front 10

Subliminal perception

Back 10

the detection of information below the level of conscious awareness

Front 11

Difference threshold

Back 11

the smallest difference in stimulation required to discriminate one stimulus from another 50 percent of the time; also called just noticeable difference

Front 12

Weber’s law

Back 12

the principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different

Front 13

Signal detection theory

Back 13

the theory about perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty; detection depends on a variety of factors besides the physical intensity of the stimulus and the sensory abilities of the observer

Front 14

Selective attention

Back 14

focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others

Front 15

Perceptual set

Back 15

a predisposition, or readiness, to perceive something in a particular way

Front 16

Sensory adaptation

Back 16

a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation

Front 17

Retina

Back 17

the light-sensitive surface in the back of the eye that records what we see and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain

Front 18

Rods

Back 18

the receptors in the retina that are sensitive to light but are not very useful for color vision

Front 19

Cones

Back 19

the receptors in the retina that process information about color

Front 20

Feature detectors

Back 20

neurons in the brain’s visual system that respond to particular features of a stimulus

Front 21

Parallel processing

Back 21

the simultaneous distribution of information across different neural pathways

Front 22

Binding

Back 22

the bringing together and integration of what is processed through different pathways or cells

Front 23

Trichromatic theory

Back 23

theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of receptors (cone cells in the retina) that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping ranges of wavelength

Front 24

Opponent-process theory

Back 24

theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue

Front 25

Figure-ground relationship

Back 25

principle by which individuals organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (background or ground)

Front 26

Gestalt psychology

Back 26

school of psychology emphasizing that people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns

Front 27

Closure

Back 27

a Gestalt principle that states when individuals see a disconnected or incomplete figure, they fill in the spaces and see it as a complete figure

Front 28

Proximity

Back 28

a Gestalt principle that states when individuals see objects close to each other, they tend to group them together

Front 29

Similarity

Back 29

a Gestalt principle that states when objects are similar, individuals tend to group them together

Front 30

Depth perception

Back 30

the ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally

Front 31

Binocular cues

Back 31

depth cues that are based on the combination of the images on the left and right eyes and on the way the two eyes work together

Front 32

Monocular cues

Back 32

depth cues that are available from the image in either eye

Front 33

Texture gradient

Back 33

the gradients of texture create an impression of depth on a surface

Front 34

Apparent movement

Back 34

the perception that a stationery object is moving

Front 35

Perceptual constancy

Back 35

recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing. There are three types of perceptual constancy – size, shape and brightness

Front 36

Size constancy

Back 36

is the recognition that an object remains the same size even though even though the retinal image of the object changes

Front 37

Shape constancy

Back 37

is the recognition that an object retains the same shape even though its orientation to us changes

Front 38

Brightness constancy

Back 38

is the recognition that an object retains the same degree of brightness event though different amounts of light fall on it

Front 39

Visual illusion

Back 39

a discrepancy between reality and the perceptual representation of it

Front 40

Müller-Lyer illusion

Back 40

the two horizontal lines are exactly the same length, although (b) is longer than (a)

Front 41

Horizontal-vertical illusion

Back 41

a vertical line looks longer than a horizontal line even though the two are equal

Front 42

Ponzo illusion

Back 42

the top line looks much longer than the bottom line, but they are the same length, (remember that objects higher in a picture are perceived as being farther away)

Front 43

Devil’s tuning fork

Back 43

an example of a two-dimensional representation of an impossible three-dimensional figure

Front 44

Moon illusion

Back 44

when the moon is on the horizon, it looks much larger that when it is high in the sky, directly above us

Front 45

Sclera

Back 45

the outer membrane of the eyeball that makes up the white of the eye

Front 46

Retina

Back 46

layer of cells in the interior of the eye that contains the photoreceptors, the rods and the cones

Front 47

Cornea

Back 47

the transparent membrane in the front of the eye that protects the eye and bends light to provide focus

Front 48

Pupil

Back 48

the opening that allows light to enter the eye

Front 49

Iris

Back 49

the colored muscle that surrounds the pupil and adjusts the amount of light entering into the eye through the pupil. It dilates (opens) or constricts (closes) in response to the intensity (brightness) of the light. It also dilates in response to certain emotions

Front 50

Lens

Back 50

focuses the image onto the retinal layer on the back surface of the eye. As in a camera, the image projected by the lens onto the retina is reversed

Front 51

Fovea

Back 51

the region of the retina that is directly in line with the pupil and contains mostly cones, which are involved in color perception and visual acuity (sharpness)

Front 52

Optic nerve

Back 52

receives inputs from the photoreceptors and sends information to the brain

Front 53

Visual pathways

Back 53

images of objects in the right visual field are projected to the left half of the retina in each eye, which in turn sends the information first to the thalamus for initial processing and then to the visual cortex, in the left hemisphere in where perception takes place. Likewise, images of objects in the left visual fielder projected to the right half of the retina in each eye, which in turn sends the information to the thalamus and then to the visual cortex in the right hemisphere

Front 54

Sound

Back 54

amplitude (intensity) = loudness; frequency = pitch; complex sounds = timbre

Front 55

Outer ear

Back 55

the visible portion of the ear and the auditory canal (ear canal) that funnels sound waves to the eardrum

Front 56

Middle ear

Back 56

includes the eardrum and three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that transmit the eardrum’s vibrations to a membrane on the cochlea called the oval window

Front 57

Inner ear

Back 57

includes the snail-shaped tube called the cochlea which translates sound waves into fluid waves, and the semicircular canals, which sense equilibrium

Front 58

Place theory

Back 58

the theory of hearing that states that each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane

Front 59

Frequency theory

Back 59

theory stating that perception of a sound’s frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires

Front 60

Volley principle

Back 60

modification of frequency theory stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses

Front 61

Auditory nerve

Back 61

nerve that carries neural impulses to the brain’s auditory areas

Front 62

Thermoreceptors

Back 62

sensory receptors, located under the skin, that respond to changes in temperature at or near the skin and provide input to keep the body’s temperature at 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit

Front 63

Pain

Back 63

the sensation that warns us that damage to our bodies is occurring

Front 64

Gate-control of theory of pain

Back 64

theory stating that the spinal column contains a neural gate that can be opened (allowing the perception of pain) or closed (blocking the perception of pain)

Front 65

Papillae

Back 65

bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds, the receptors for taste. The tip of the tongue is the most sensitive to sweet and salty substances, the sides to sour, and the rear to bitter.

Front 66

Olfactory epithelium

Back 66

a sheet of receptor cells for smell that lines the roof of the nasal cavity

Front 67

Kinesthetic senses

Back 67

senses that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation

Front 68

Vestibular sense

Back 68

senses that provide information about balance and movement

Front 69

Semicircular canals

Back 69

structure in the inner ear containing the sensory receptors that detect head motion

Front 70

Consciousness

Back 70

awareness of external events and internal sensations, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one’s experiences; this awareness occurs under a condition of arousal. The association areas and prefrontal lobes are believed to play important roles in consciousness

Front 71

Stream of consciousness

Back 71

James’ concept of that the mind is a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings

Front 72

Controlled processes

Back 72

the most alert states of consciousness, in which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal.

Front 73

Automated processes

Back 73

states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities

Front 74

Unconscious thought

Back 74

Freud’s concept of a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness

Front 75

Biological rhythms

Back 75

periodic physiological fluctuations in the body

Front 76

Circadian rhythm

Back 76

a daily behavioral or physiological cycle, such as the sleep/wake cycle

Front 77

Suprachiasmastic nucleus (SCN)

Back 77

a small structure in the brain (hypothalamus) that synchronizes its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark based on input from the retina

Front 78

REM sleep

Back 78

rapid eye movement sleep; stage 5 of sleep, in which dreaming occurs; begins when the reticular formation raises the level of acetylcholine. It lasts about 10 minutes in 1st sleep cycle of the night and up to one hour in the last cycle.

Front 79

Cognitive theory of dreaming

Back 79

theory proposing that dreaming can be understood by applying the same cognitive concepts that are used in studying the waking mind

Front 80

Activation-synthesis theory

Back 80

theory stating that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain

Front 81

Hypnosis

Back 81

an altered state of consciousness or simply a psychological state of altered attention and expectation, in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions

Front 82

Social cognitive behavior view of hypothesis

Back 82

perspective that views hypnosis as a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes a hypnotized person should behave

Front 83

Psychoactive drugs

Back 83

substances that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods

Front 84

Tolerance

Back 84

the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to produce the same effect

Front 85

Physical dependence

Back 85

the physiological need for a drug, accompanied by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, such as pain and craving, when the drug is discontinued

Front 86

Psychological dependence

Back 86

the strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and stress reduction

Front 87

Addiction

Back 87

either a physical or psychological dependence, or both, on a drug

Front 88

Depressants

Back 88

psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity

Front 89

Alcoholism

Back 89

a disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive, and excessive use of alcoholic beverages and that impairs the drinker’s health and social relationships

Front 90

Barbiturates

Back 90

depressant drugs that decrease the activity of the central nervous system

Front 91

Tranquilizers

Back 91

depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation

Front 92

Opiates

Back 92

Opium and its derivatives; they depress the central nervous system’s activity

Front 93

Stimulants

Back 93

psychoactive drugs that increase the central nervous system’s activity

Front 94

Hallucinogens

Back 94

psychoactive drugs that modify a person’s perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real

Front 95

Higher level awareness

Back 95

controlled processes and selective attention

Front 96

Lower level awareness

Back 96

automatic processes and daydreaming

Front 97

Altered states of consciousness

Back 97

produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue, and other factors

Front 98

Subconscious awareness

Back 98

waking subconscious awareness, sleep and dreams

Front 99

No awareness

Back 99

unconscious thought

Front 100

Learning

Back 100

a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

Front 101

Behaviorism

Back 101

a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing and hoping

Front 102

Associative learning

Back 102

learning in which a connection, or an association, is made between two events

Front 103

Conditioning

Back 103

the process by which associative learning occurs

Front 104

Observational learning

Back 104

learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior; also called imitation or modeling

Front 105

Four main processes in observational learning (Bandura)

Back 105

attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement

Front 106

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)

Back 106

learning by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. It is an underlying principle in advertising and involves respondent behavior. The immune system is susceptible to this type of conditioning

Front 107

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Back 107

a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

Front 108

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Back 108

an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Front 109

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 109

a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the conditioned response after being associated with the conditioned stimulus

Front 110

Conditioned response (CR)

Back 110

the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the pairing of a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

Front 111

Acquisition (classical conditioning)

Back 111

the initial learning of the stimulus-response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becoming the conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response

Front 112

Contiguity (classical conditioning)

Back 112

connectedness in time and space of the stimuli

Front 113

Contingency (classical conditioning)

Back 113

predictability of the occurrence of one stimulus from the presence of another

Front 114

Generalization (classical conditioning)

Back 114

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

Front 115

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

Back 115

the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others

Front 116

Extinction (classical conditioning)

Back 116

the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

Front 117

Spontaneous recovery

Back 117

the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning

Front 118

Counterconditioning

Back 118

a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear.

Front 119

Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Back 119

also called instrumental conditioning, a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. It involves operant behavior and is better at explaining voluntary behavior.

Front 120

Skinner

Back 120

he believed that the mechanisms of learning are the same for all species. He studied lower animals extensively in the hope that the basic mechanisms of learning could be more easily understood in organisms simpler than humans.

Front 121

Law of effect

Back 121

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

Front 122

S-R theory

Back 122

Thorndike’s view that the organism’s behavior is due to a connection between a stimulus and a response

Front 123

Shaping

Back 123

rewarding approximations of a desired behavior

Front 124

Reinforcement

Back 124

the process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows. It can be continuous (a behavior is reinforced every time) or partial (a behavior is reinforced only a portion of the time)

Front 125

Positive reinforcement

Back 125

following a behavior with a rewarding stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior

Front 126

Negative reinforcement

Back 126

following a behavior with the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior

Front 127

Primary reinforcement

Back 127

the use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying

Front 128

Secondary reinforcement

Back 128

the use of reinforcers that are learned or conditioned

Front 129

Schedules of reinforcement

Back 129

timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.

Front 130

Fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement

Back 130

a timetable that reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors

Front 131

Variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement

Back 131

a timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis

Front 132

Fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement

Back 132

a timetable that reinforces the first appropriate behavior after a fixed amount of time has elapsed

Front 133

Variable-interval schedule of reinforcement

Back 133

a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed

Front 134

Generalization (operant conditioning)

Back 134

the tendency to give the same response to similar stimuli

Front 135

Discrimination (operant conditioning)

Back 135

the tendency to respond to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced

Front 136

Extinction (operant conditioning)

Back 136

the situation, where, because a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, there is a decreased tendency to perform the behavior

Front 137

Punishment

Back 137

a consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur

Front 138

Positive punishment

Back 138

a behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus

Front 139

Negative punishment

Back 139

a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it – time out is an example of this type of punishment

Front 140

Purposiveness

Back 140

Tolman’s belief that much of learning is goal-directed, Tolman went beyond stimuli and responses to discuss cognitive mechanisms

Front 141

Latent learning (implicit learning)

Back 141

unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

Front 142

Insight learning

Back 142

a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of the problem’s solution, Kohler developed this concept of learning.

Front 143

Instinctive drift

Back 143

the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

Front 144

Preparedness

Back 144

the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

Front 145

Taste aversion

Back 145

the biological predisposition to avoid foods that have caused sickness in the past

Front 146

Biological constraints

Back 146

restricts what an organism can learn from experience; these constraints include instinctive drift, preparedness, and taste aversion

Front 147

Cultural constraints

Back 147

culture often determines the content of learning

Front 148

Psychological constraints

Back 148

what we learn is determined in part by what we believe we can learn

Front 149

Entity theory

Back 149

holds that ability is fixed and unchanging

Front 150

Incremental theory

Back 150

holds that ability can change through learning

Front 151

Learned helplessness

Back 151

the phenomenon of learning through experience that outcomes are not controllable

Front 152

Four important variables in stress response (operant conditioning)

Back 152

predictability, perceived control, perceptions of improvement, and outlets for frustration

Front 153

Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification)

Back 153

the application of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

Front 154

Three main classes of of sense organs and receptors

Back 154

photoreception, mechnoreception and chemoreception

Front 155

cutaneous senses

Back 155

touch, temperature and pain

Front 156

Fast pain pathway

Back 156

transmits information about sharp, localized pain, fibers connect directly with the thalamus, then on to the motor and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.

Front 157

Slow pain pathway

Back 157

unpleasant, nagging pain and the pain ninformation travels through the limbic system, a detour that delays the arrival of information to the cerebral cortex by seconds.

Front 158

Addictive drugs

Back 158

activate the brain's reward system by increasing dopamine concentration.

Front 159

Meditation

Back 159

state of quiet reflection that has benefits for a wide range of psychological or physical illnesses.

Front 160

Premak principle

Back 160

High probability activity can be used to reinforce a low-probability activity. It is a common reinforcer used by teachers

Front 161

Beta waves

Back 161

High frequency waves that reflect concentration and alertness

Front 162

Alpha waves

Back 162

lower frequency patterns associated with being relaxed or drowsy

Front 163

Stage 1

Back 163

light sleep lating up to 10 minutes ; includes theta waves - (low frequency, low amplitude).

Front 164

Stage 2

Back 164

Deeper sleep characterized by occasional sleep spindles(brief high frequency waves), lasting up to 20 minutes.

Front 165

Stage 3

Back 165

Progressively more muscle relaxation and emergence of delta waves (slower); lasts up to 40 minutes.

Front 166

Stage 4

Back 166

deep sleep when sleeper is difficult to rouse; delta waves - large, slow brain waves occur.

Front 167

Stage 4

Back 167

deep sleep when sleeper is difficult to rouse; delta waves - large, slow brain waves occur.

Front 168

Non-rem sleep

Back 168

Sleep stages 1 - 4